The Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayer works on the principle of pressurized liquid delivery. Instead of using manual pumping to build pressure, a small DC motor and pump assembly, powered by a battery, creates the required pressure inside the liquid chamber or pump line. This pressure forces the spray liquid (pesticide solution, herbicide solution, or fertilizer mixture) through the delivery pipe and nozzle. The liquid is atomized to fine droplets by nozzle. These droplets are then distributed onto the crop surface.
The efficiency of the Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayer depends on:
Pressure generated by the pump,
Flow rate,
Type and design of the nozzle,
Battery backup and capacity,
Uniformity of spray droplet size.
Major Parts of a Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayer
Typically these types of sprayers consists of the following major components:
1. Tank (Chemical Container)
The tank is made of from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or other non-corrosive, chemical-resistant plastics. It would have a wide mouth and lid for easy refilling and washing, a strainer and markings on side for quantity of liquid in the tank. Tanks are available from 12 to 20 liters model wise.
2. Battery
A 12 volt, 8-12 Ah, sealed lead acid or lithium-ion rechargeable battery is used. A charging port and indicating light are also provided.
3. Electric Motor
A small lightweight, low noise, and durable dc motor, running on 12 volt runs the pump assembly.
4. Pump Assembly
Generates the pressure required to push the liquid through the spraying system. Two types of pump are used: a) diaphragm and b) piston pump. The diaphragm type is more common. The pump pressure is around 30 – 60 psi.
5. Pressure Regulator or Control Valve
Maintains a constant spraying pressure and allows the operator to adjust flow rate. It also prevents over-pressurization and ensures uniform spray droplet size.
The regulator consists of a spring-loaded valve inside a small chamber. When the pump pressure rises above the preset level (say 2.5–3 bar), the excess pressure pushes against the spring. This opens the valve slightly and allows some of the liquid to bypass—usually returning to the tank. When pressure drops, the spring pushes the valve closed again, so more liquid flows toward the delivery hose.
6. Delivery Hose Reinforced PVC or rubber Flexible tube that carries pressurized liquid from the pump to the spray lance or gun. Resistant to chemicals and abrasion.
7. Spray Gun / Lance made of plastic or stainless steel with trigger or lever mechanism.
8. Nozzle There are different types of nozzles e.g. hollow cone (for fungicides and insecticides), Flat fan nozzle (for herbicides), and Adjustable nozzle (multi-purpose, can vary droplet size and pattern).
9. Switch & Control Panel
10. Frame & Shoulder Straps
11. Charger
Applications beyond Agriculture
While mainly used in agriculture, Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayers are also used in:
Horticulture and floriculture.
Greenhouses and nurseries.
Disinfecting public spaces (especially post-COVID).
Pest control in warehouses and households.
Advantages of Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayers
Reduced Labor: No manual pumping required, less operator fatigue.
Efficiency: Constant pressure ensures uniform droplet size and better chemical utilization.
Portability: Can be carried easily on shoulders and used in different terrains.
Time Saving: Sprays larger areas in shorter time compared to manual shoulder Sprayers.
Versatility: Can be used for insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, liquid fertilizers, and even sanitizers in non-farm applications.
Maintenance of a Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayer
To ensure long life and reliable performance:
Clean tank and nozzles after every use.
Do not leave chemicals in the tank overnight.
Periodically check hose and connections for leaks.
Store battery in charged condition to prevent deep discharge damage.
Lubricate moving parts if recommended by manufacturer.
Replace nozzles if they show wear or clogging.
Understand with an info graphics
Conclusion
A Battery Operated Shoulder Sprayer is a modern tool that combines portability, efficiency, and ease of use. By replacing manual pumping with a battery-powered motor and pump, it saves labor and provides consistent spraying pressure. The main parts—tank, battery, motor, pump, hose, spray gun, and nozzle—work together to deliver a fine spray of chemicals that ensures better pest and weed management. Proper operation and maintenance make it a highly valuable device for farmers, gardeners, and even sanitation workers. Non shoulder sprayers with similar designs are also used for spraying.
If you are a lemon tree farmer, I need to share some information to you all. Monsoon season last year saw very heavy precipitation throughout and then came winter, severe winter. We had Dark and Dry Lemon TreeTrunks, which slowly shed all leaves. The trees appeared dead. I took several steps to save to save the lemon trees. The effect of all steps bore fruits in the coming spring season. However, even though revived the lemon production was not as before. The steps to prevent such event should have been taken before the dryness settled in the trees.
What I Learnt
Wet Soil and Cold temperatures affect badly
My lemon trees had suffered heavy rains in monsoon followed immediately with cold and severe cold conditions. Such conditions caused dead looking Dark and Dry Lemon Tree Trunks in Lemon (and other citrus varieties). Putting covering shades helps in limiting such damages. Do not prune such dead looking trees until spring season.
Prevent Over watering and root rot
Heavy rains had caused over watering. The roots of the lemon tree were in water for considerable time. This causes Root Rot and Dark and Dry Lemon Trees. Citrus varieties, of which Lemons are a part, becomes highly susceptible to pests and diseases as a result of poor drainage or standing water. Such trees have difficulty with proper nutrient uptake in wet soils.
The rot makes lemon tree shed all its leaves. All grass around the base of lemon needs to weeded out. This will allow sun rays and air to dry the wet earth. Plastic film mulching can help in such circumstances. Another good method is putting organic fertilizers mulching a little distance from around tree trunk.
Correct for Nutritional Deficiencies
Nitrogen Phosphate Fertilizers with nutrients like magnesium, zinc, manganese, iron etc. make Lemon tree healthy and resistant to leave shedding and dying. Such applications result in good size crops and expected production with such trees. Regular fertilization every one or two month’s helps younger trees.
No to Regular deep digging around base
Deep digging around the tree base is not a healthy practice. The shallow roots of Lemon tree are damaged in such practice. Mulching or planting shallow rooted plans like coriander etc.is a better option.
Go for Copper sprays:
Good even coverage of Copper sprays strengthens the Lemon Trees as it protects fungi and diseases during rains and excess water retention period. The sprays need to be repeated at frequent intervals so that effect of same remains on the leaves.
Taking care of the Lemon Trees, adopting the above methods, was not possible after the trees had turned Dark and Dry. Still fertilization, giving nutrients, no pruning, fungi and bacterial sprays did give results in the following springs. All the above steps actually need to be carried out from just before the monsoon and carried through winters. This will prevent to a large extent Dark and Dry Lemon Trunk Trees.
We have discussed previously in our blogs on fertilizers and fertilizations system in a general ways. Now we consider a very important subject and that is to get fertilizer in outlet of such fertilization systems. A Three-Tank Fertigation System allows mixing of all fertilizers in a way that they do not interact. One may like to go following to blog in this site.
There are several benefits to using a Three-Tank Fertigation System:
Improved plant growth and yield: The three-tank fertigation system allows for precise control of nutrient delivery, ensuring that the plants receive the correct amount and type of nutrients they need at each stage of their growth cycle. This leads to healthier, more vigorous plants, and higher yields.
Reduced fertilizer waste: With a three-tank system, farmers can deliver just the right amount of nutrients that the plants need, reducing fertilizer waste and costs. This also helps to minimize the environmental impact of excess fertilizer runoff.
Water savings: Fertigation systems deliver water and nutrients directly to the plants’ root zone, reducing water loss through evaporation and run-off. This saves water and makes irrigation more efficient.
Increased flexibility: The Three-Tank Fertigation System allows farmers to adjust the nutrient mix to suit different crops, growth stages, and soil types, giving them greater flexibility and control over their irrigation system.
Reduced labor costs: Fertigation systems automate the process of delivering nutrients to the plants, reducing the need for manual labor and increasing efficiency.
Improved crop health: By providing plants with a consistent supply of nutrients, a fertigation system can help improve crop health and resilience, making them less susceptible to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors
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THERE ARE ALSO SOME POTENTIAL PROBLEMS TO CONSIDER:
Upfront cost: Installing a Three-Tank Fertigation System can be expensive, requiring specialized equipment and expertise. The cost of the system may be prohibitive for smaller farmers or those with limited resources.
Maintenance: Fertigation systems require regular maintenance to ensure they are operating properly and delivering the correct nutrients to the plants. This includes monitoring and adjusting the nutrient levels, cleaning the system, and replacing worn or damaged parts.
Complexity: The Three-Tank Fertigation System can be complex to operate, requiring a good understanding of crop nutrient requirements, water management, and irrigation technology. Farmers may need to invest time and resources to learn how to operate the system effectively.
Nutrient imbalances: Improperly balanced nutrient solutions can lead to nutrient imbalances, which can harm plant growth and yield. It is important to monitor the nutrient levels regularly and adjust them as needed to avoid these issues.
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IMPLEMENT A THREE TANK FERTIGATION SYSTEM BY A FARMER
Implementing a Three-Tank Fertigation System shoud be installed and implemented by an expert, however below some steps farmer who wish to do himself can follow:
Assess crop nutrient requirements: Determine the nutrient requirements of the crops you plan to grow, and identify the appropriate fertilizers to use at each growth stage.
Select a fertigation system: Choose a fertigation system that is appropriate for your crop type and size, and that is compatible with the fertilizers you plan to use. There are several different types of fertigation systems available, including drip systems, sprinkler systems, and micro-sprinklers.
Install the system: Install the system according to the manufacturer’s instructions, taking into account factors such as irrigation flow rates, water quality, and soil type. Consider consulting with an expert or agricultural extension agent for advice and guidance.
Set up the Three-Tank Fertigation System: Set up the three tanks and fill them with the appropriate fertilizers and water. Make sure to label each tank clearly to avoid confusion.
Program the fertigation system: Program the fertigation system to deliver the appropriate nutrient solution at each growth stage, based on the crop’s nutrient requirements. Make sure to monitor the system regularly to ensure it is functioning properly.
Monitor and adjust: Monitor the nutrient levels in the soil and adjust the fertilization schedule and nutrient mix as needed to maintain optimal crop growth and yield.
THREE-TANK FERTIGATION SYSTEM GENERAL SCHEMATIC:
A Three-Tank Fertigation System typically consists of three tanks filled with different fertilizer solutions and water. These tanks are connected to a fertigation system that delivers the nutrient solutions to the crops through an irrigation system. The system may include sensors to monitor nutrient levels and a controller to adjust the nutrient delivery as needed. The specific sign of the system may vary depending on factors such as the size of the farm, the crop type, and the irrigation method used.
Government provides subsidies in various ways for installing such fertilizer systems and also subsidies on fertilizers seeds and agriculture tools. Farmers should contact their agriculture officers and Panchayet etc. to reduce costs.
Three-Tank Fertigation System is a highly efficient and effective way to provide crops with the nutrients they need, resulting in improved growth and yield, reduced waste, and greater sustainability.
Variable rate fertilization (VRF) is a technique that tailors different parts of a farm, growing different farm produce, into identifiable section. Farmers have been working a whole lot on Precision Farming techniques. VRF is a big aid in Precision Farming.
If you are a farmer growing different produces on your land simultaneously OR if your land has variation in soil types, this blog is especially useful for you.
The Need for VRF in Precision Farming
Traditional farming relies on a uniform rate of application of fertilizers (which would have been recommended by agriculture service departments or by one’s own knowledge) on the whole parcel of land where particular crop is to be produced. This results in either too much or too little fertilizer on particular zones of the farm land.
Instead fertilizers can be given, based on observing, measuring and responding, according to field variability in a particular farm land, as well as suited for different crops. This management technique is referred variously as precision farming, satellite agriculture, as-needed farming and site-specific crop management (SSCM).
VRF has the potential to reduce wastage of fertilizer. Reducing fertilizer usage to minimum required, results in lowering of run off into water ways and release of harmful gases. And this in turn helps greatly in reducing climate change effects.
How VRF Works
Variable rate fertilization (VRF), is an agricultural practice that involves applying fertilizers to a field or crop in a way that takes into account the spatial variability of both soil condition and crop being grown. Farmers adjust the fertilizer application rates based on the specific needs of different areas within the field.
Steps to apply VRF:
Data Collection: Farmers collect various types of data about their fields, including soil nutrient levels, pH, organic matter content, moisture levels, and crop health. This data can be gathered through soil sampling, remote sensing technologies (such as drones or satellite imagery), and on-the-ground observations.
Data Analysis: The collected data is analyzed to create a detailed map of the field’s variability. This map shows areas of the field that may have different nutrient requirements based on factors like soil type, historical yield data, and current crop health.
Prescription Mapping: Using specialized software and algorithms, farmers create prescription maps that specify the fertilizer application rates for different parts of the field. These maps guide the variable rate fertilizer applicator to adjust the rate as it moves through the field.
Data Collection and Analysis
VRF relies on different types of data to make informed decisions about fertilizer application rates for different parts of a field. Key data sources in VRF:
Soil Test Data: Baseline data about soil fertility as determined from Nutrient Content, pH levels, Organic Matter, and other properties of the soils.
Historical Yield Data: Data regarding past yields in different areas of the field to get trend lines and pattern to determine fertilizer applications.
Remote Sensing Data: Data collected through Satellite Imagery, Aerial Photography as also sensor equipped Drones, and Spectral Imagery. We get data on crop health, moisture levels, nutrient stress if any, differences in crop vigor etc.
Field Sensors: Sensors places in the field itself provide valuable continuous localized information like moisture levels, temperature etc.
Weather Data:
GPS and GIS Data: This data enables precise boundary marking of different parts of the field.
Crop Models and Algorithms:
Farm Management Software:
Data from above sources is combined and analyzed with the help of software and computer hardware. Even smartphones can be used as controllers and monitors. The resulting recommendations enable farmers to respond to the unique conditions of each field, in real time, leading to improved crop yields and resource efficiency.
Components of a Precision Agriculture System from a U.S. GAO report
Required Agriculture Equipment:
Some of the key equipment used for field application of VRF are:
Variable Rate Spreaders:
Variable rate spreaders are one of the most commonly used pieces of equipment in VRF. These machines are designed to apply granular fertilizers, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium, in a way that varies the application rate across the field.
Variable-rate fertilizer application allows crop producers to apply different rates of fertilizer at each location across fields. The technology needed to accomplish variable-rate fertilization includes an in-cab computer and software with the field zone mounted on suitable tractors.
Variable Rate Sprayers:
Similar to spreaders, variable rate sprayers are used for liquid fertilizer or pesticide application. They have a tank for holding the liquid, a pump, and a spray boom with multiple nozzles.
The controller in variable rate sprayers adjusts the flow rate of the liquid based on the prescription maps, GPS coordinates, and real-time sensor data to ensure uniform coverage while varying application rates as needed.
Drones:
Drones equipped with various sensors, such as multi-spectral or hyper-spectral cameras, are used for remote sensing and data collection in precision agriculture, including VRF.
GPS Technology:
GPS receivers on farming equipment, such as tractors, spreaders, and sprayers, determine their exact position and synchronize with prescription maps.
GIS Software and Data Management Tools:
Geographic Information System (GIS) software and data management tools are used to create prescription maps and manage spatial data.
On-Farm Sensors:
On-farm sensors, such as soil moisture sensors or nutrient sensors, provide real-time data about local conditions in the field.
Farm Management Software:
Farm management software loaded on computers serves as the central hub for VRF operations, allowing farmers to integrate data from various sources, visualize field conditions, and create and execute prescription maps.
Benefits of VRF
Enhances crop growth and yield by tailoring fertilizer applications to the specific needs of different areas within a field.
Increased cost savings for farmers as VRF reduces fertilizer wastage,
Environmental Benefits of VRF: Reduced risk of nutrient runoff and leaching, minimize overuse of fertilizers.
Promotes Sustainable Agriculture: Prompts farmers for more responsible resource management.
Challenges and Limitations
Some of the key limitations and challenges of such techniques are:
Data Requirements: VRF depends on accurate and timely data about soil conditions, crop health, and field variability. It is time-consuming and costly. Inaccurate or outdated data can lead to sub-optimal fertilizer prescriptions.
Initial Investment: Adapting to VRF technology for the first time requires significant initial investment in specialized equipment and software.
Technical Expertise: Training and support required for the farmers to acquire technical knowledge to operate and maintain the equipment and software effectively.
Data Integration: Collating and significance of the Data collected from various sources can be challenging. Farmers need specialized tools and systems that allow them to combine and analyze these diverse data types effectively.
Prescription Accuracy. If the maps are based on inaccurate data or faulty assumptions, the variable rate application would fail in achieving the targeted outcomes.
Variable Weather Conditions: VRF systems may not always adapt quickly enough to these changing conditions, potentially leading to under or over fertilization.
Despite limitations, VRF continues to evolve and improve with advancements in technology and data analytics. As the agricultural industry seeks more sustainable and efficient practices, addressing these challenges will be essential for the broader adoption and success of VRF in modern farming.
Economic Considerations
Variable Rate Fertilization (VRF) can have significant financial benefits for farmers when implemented effectively. Here’s an exploration of the financial aspects to be considered in adapting VRF techniques.
Cost Savings: reduced fertilizer costs, lower fuel and labor costs.
Increased Crop Yields, increase in revenue.
Resource Efficiency both in fertilizer application and water requirement.
Return on Investment (ROI): needs to be considered by the farmers based on following points.
Long-Term Benefits – will outweigh initial costs due to improved yields and resource efficiency.
Risk Mitigation – possible to avoid unpredictable factors, better positioning to market conditions, protect income.
Competitive Advantage: adds to competitive advantage of th farm.
Government Incentives: Governments provide wide incentives and subsidies on adaption to VRF.
That said, the financial benefits of VRF can vary based on several factors, including farm size, crop type, soil conditions, and the accuracy of data used in prescription mapping.
Future Trends and Innovations
The field of Variable Rate Fertilization (VRF) is constantly evolving with advancements in technology and a growing emphasis on sustainability and precision agriculture. Here are some of the future trends and developments expected in VRF:
Advanced Data Analytics and use of AI.
Internet of Things (IoT) sensors will play a larger role in VRF. These sensors will monitor various aspects of the field, such as soil conditions, weather, and crop health, in real-time.
Block chain and Data Security: Block chain technology may be used to secure and track data related to VRF practices, ensuring data integrity and enabling transparent sharing of information between stakeholders.
Robotic and Autonomous Equipment: Advances in robotics and automation will lead to the development of autonomous machinery for precision agriculture and lead to labor cost reduction.
Customized Crop Management: VRF will expand beyond fertilization to include other aspects of crop management, such as irrigation, planting, and pest control and optimize overall crop health and yield.
Environmental Monitoring:
Remote Sensing Advancements:
VRF will increasingly focus on climate-resilient farming practices. see also
There will be a greater emphasis on educating farmers and agricultural professionals in data-driven farming practices.
VRF will see increased adoption worldwide, including in developing countries. As technology becomes more accessible and affordable, even small-scale and subsistence farmers will benefit from the precision and resource efficiency offered by VRF.
Conclusion
VRF practices are driven by the need for sustainable and efficient agriculture, increased access to advanced technology, and a growing awareness of the environmental and economic benefits of precision farming practices. VRF will prominently shape the future of agriculture. VRF practices would be very suitable for farms with:
Crop Diversity:
Farms that grow a variety of crops can benefit from VRF by tailoring nutrient applications to the specific needs of each crop. Crop rotation and diversity often lead to varying soil conditions and nutrient demands.
Spatial Variability:
Farms with noticeable spatial variability in soil properties, such as differences in soil type, pH levels, and organic matter content, are well-suited for VRF. VRF allows for precise nutrient management to address these variations.
Access to Data:
Farms that can collect and integrate VRF data effectively will benefit the most from VRF.
Farms with a commitment to sustainable and environmentally responsible farming, Farms that are open to adopting advanced agricultural technologies, Farms with a focus on maximizing profitability and optimizing resource use, Research farms and Farms that grow high-value specialty crops are strong candidates for VRF.
Suitability of VRF techniques also depends on the specific goals and resources of each farm.
Climate Change affects agriculture production in more than one way.
Wheat Crop Damage due to unseasonal heavy windy rains in Punjab, India (ndtv news)
Climate Change affect impact is not limited to only one country, but is happening in one form or other all over the globe. Vietnam, Philippines are having very high temperature for this time of the year.
As I write this blog, almost all of India is having unseasonal heavy rains. Temperatures are way below the normal. Contrarily some parts of India are expected to have a higher than normal temperatures causing heat waves. Unseasonal rain, snow, high temperatures are happening all over the globe.
Climate Change has had a significant impact on agriculture produce production around the world. Wheat production has been lower and also of lower grade. Italy reports loss of rice crop losses. Spain reports of olive crop loss. France will enforce water restrictions as the driest winter on record puts the country in a “state of alert” for droughts this summer. There are other such agro losses instances.
Ways Climate Change affects agriculture:
Temperature Changes:
Rising temperatures due to Climate Change can have a significant impact on agriculture production. Extreme heat can damage crops, reduce yields and even lead to complete crop failure.
Changes in Rainfall Patterns:
Climate Change is also altering rainfall patterns in many parts of the world. In some areas, there are prolonged droughts while in others there are heavy rains that lead to floods. These Changes in rainfall patterns can make it difficult for farmers to plan when to plant and harvest crops, and may also lead to crop failures.
Pests and Diseases:
Climate Change is also leading to the spread of new pests and diseases that can damage crops. Warmer temperatures can create ideal conditions for pests and disease-carrying insects to thrive, which can result in reduced crop yields.
Water Scarcity:
As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns change, water scarcity is becoming an increasingly significant problem in many parts of the world. Farmers are struggling to find enough water to irrigate their crops, which can lead to reduced yields and crop failures.
Soil Erosion:
Climate Change is also leading to increased soil erosion, which can have a devastating impact on agriculture. As soil erodes, it becomes less fertile, making it difficult to grow crops.
Dealing with Climate Change affect impact on sowing For Wheat And Rice :
Climate Change effect is expected to have significant impacts on the periods of sowings for wheat and rice. Accurate, timely and year round advance weather information to the farmers will play a big role in determining suitable sowing periods.
What Methods To Use For Production Of Vegetables In Areas Affected Due To Climate Change:
Climate Change is altering rainfall patterns in many parts of the world, and in some regions, there may be more frequent and heavier rain events. This can pose a challenge for vegetable production as excess moisture can cause damage to crops and soil. The following are some suggestions:
Use Raised Beds:
Raised beds can help improve drainage and prevent water-logging in the soil. This can reduce the risk of root rot and other water-related diseases. The raised beds can be built using organic materials such as wood or bamboo or by mounding the soil into raised beds.
Mulching:
Mulching is a practice of covering the soil with organic matter such as straw, leaves, or grass clippings. This helps retain moisture in the soil and also reduces the impact of heavy rains on the soil surface. Mulch also helps to suppress weed growth, which can reduce competition for moisture and nutrients.
Drainage Channels:
Constructing drainage channels or ditches in the field can help divert excess water away from vegetable beds, preventing water-logging and soil erosion.
Use of Tunnels and Greenhouses:
Tunnels and greenhouses can provide a protective barrier against heavy rains and also help maintain optimal growing conditions for vegetables. The structures can be covered with a clear plastic or polythene material to allow light in while keeping the rain out.
Crop Rotation:
Crop rotation is a method where farmers alternate between different vegetable crops in the same field to improve soil health and reduce pests and diseases. This can also help to adapt to changing Climate conditions by selecting crops that are more resilient to heavy rains.
Select Particular Variety Of Seeds/Plants:
Farmers can choose vegetable varieties that are more tolerant to excess moisture and water logging. This can include crops such as water spinach, taro, or water chestnut that can grow well in wet conditions.
Overall, a combination of above methods, and native innovative thinking, can help farmers adapt to the changing Climate conditions and maintain their vegetable production in rain-heavy/drought prone regions. Governmental or NGO/Self Help Groups support and assistance is essential to ensure that methods adopted are sustainable, affordable, and accessible to small-scale farmers.
Areas Likely to be Most Affected and to What Extent:
Climate Change is a global phenomenon, and impacts every region of the world. However, some areas are likely to be more affected than others, depending on a range of factors such as geographic location, natural resources, and socioeconomic conditions.
Arctic Region:
The Arctic is warming at a rate two to three times faster than the global average, leading to the melting of sea ice, permafrost, and glaciers. This is causing sea levels to rise, coastal erosion, and the loss of habitat for Arctic wildlife.
Sub-Saharan Africa:
Climate Change is expected to exacerbate existing challenges in the region, such as water scarcity, food insecurity, and poverty. Droughts and floods are likely to become more frequent and severe, leading to Crop Failures, Livestock Losses, And Displacement of People.
South Asia:
The region is vulnerable to Climate Change impacts such as extreme weather events, sea level rise, and melting of glaciers. These changes are likely to lead to Increased Water Scarcity, Food Insecurity, and Displacement of People.
Small Island Developing States (SIDS):
SIDS are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise, which could result in the Loss of Coastal Infrastructure, Displacement of People, and Damage to Ecosystems. Climate Change is also expected to increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events in these regions.
Coastal Regions:
Coastal Regions around the world are likely to be affected by Sea Level Rise, Storm Surges, and Coastal Erosion. This could result in the Loss of Property, Infrastructure and Natural Habitats.
The extent of the Climate Change impact in these areas will depend on the severity and frequency of Climate-related events and the ability of communities and governments to adapt and mitigate their effects.
Farmers switch to millet crops
In South Asia, Climate Change is expected to bring about changes in temperature and rainfall pattern, which could affect crop productivity and food security. In some areas, it may be beneficial for farmers to switch to millet crops instead of cereals as a Climate-resilient crop.
Millet crops are drought-tolerant, have a short growing period, and can grow in poor soil conditions. Such characteristics makes millet crops resilient to the impacts of Climate Change, such as droughts, floods, and heat stress.
In addition, millets are recommended as being highly nutritious and said to provide health benefits such as improved digestion, blood sugar control, and cardiovascular health. They are also more affordable than many other grains, making them an important source of food security for smallholder farmers.
However, switching to millets from cereals may not be a viable option for all farmers, as it depends on a range of factors such as market demand, access to seeds, and the availability of irrigation and other resources. Additionally, barriers to the adoption of millets instead of cereals in the population.We all must unitedly make sure climate change affect is minimised.
Pigeon pea is scientifically known as Cajanus Cajan. Pigeon Pea belongs to the widespread family of pulses. Also known as Arhar, tur or Red gram, it is a tropical legume that is widely cultivated for its nutritious seeds. Here are some basic guidelines for pigeon pea (Arhar) farming.
Climate and Soil:
Pigeon pea grows well in warm, tropical climates with temperatures ranging between 20 to 30°C. It requires well-drained soil with a pH of 5.5 to 7.5. Arhar or Toor Dal crop requires average rainfall of 600-650 mm with moist conditions for the first eight weeks and drier conditions during flowering and pod development stage, this will result in a highly successful crop. Rains during the flowering result in poor pollination. It is tolerant of drought conditions but does not tolerate waterlogging
Land preparation:
Red gram or Toor Dal is a deep-rooted crop. It responds well to a proper tilth. Land is to be prepared by at least one plowing during the dry season followed by 2 or 3 harrows and disc plowing. Clear the land of weeds and other debris, plow the field to a depth of 15-20 cm, and level the land. The site has a blog on land preparation for greater detail.
Planting:
Pigeon pea can be planted either by direct sowing or transplanting. If direct sowing, sow seeds at a depth of 2-3 cm, and 15-20 cm apart. If transplanting, sow 2-3 seeds in each nursery bed and transplant after 25-30 days. Tall varieties of Arhar should be sown in rows at a distance of 50 cm while dwarf varieties should be shown at 30-35 cm. and with seed to seed spacing of 15-20 cm. The crop gives a much higher yield if it is sown in the last week of May.
Seed Treatment for Toor Dal Plantation:
Treat the seeds with Carbendazim or Thiram@ 2 g/kg of seed 24 hours before sowing (or) with powder formulation of Trichoderma Viride@ 4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens@ 10 g/kg seed.
Fertilizers:
Apply farmyard manure or compost at the rate of 10-15 tonnes per hectare, and incorporate it into the soil before planting. Apply 25-30 kg/ha of nitrogen, 60-80 kg/ha of phosphorus, and 40-50 kg/ha of potassium as basal fertilizer.
Irrigation:
Pigeon pea requires moderate irrigation. Provide irrigation once a week during the dry season and once in two weeks during the rainy season.
Inter-cropping in Toor Dal Crop:
Inter cropping is the growing of two or more crops of dissimilar growth patterns on the same piece of land. Such inter-copping optimizes total yield and net profits per unit area. Traditionally arhar is intercropped with cereals, oilseeds, short duration grain legumes (pulses), or cotton for example
Sorghum, pearl millet, maize, finger millet, sesamum, ground nut, soyabean, etc.
arhar is also intercropped with short-duration pulse crops such as mung bean, cowpea, black gram, chickpea, etc.
Recommended seed rate:
The recommended seed rate for pigeon pea (Arhar) farming is about 15-20 kg per hectare. This may vary depending on the variety, soil type, and planting method used. It is advisable to use certified seeds to ensure good germination and yield.
Pests and Diseases:
Arhar is susceptible to pests such as pod borer, stem borer, and leaf hoppers. It is also susceptible to diseases such as wilt, root rot, and leaf spot. Apply appropriate pesticides and fungicides to control pests and diseases. Please also refer to our blog for more details on pests, diseases and prevention of same.
Time from sowing to harvesting:
The time taken for Arhar (Pigeon Pea) crop to reach maturity and for harvesting depends on several factors such as variety, climate, soil fertility, and management practices.
On average, Arhar takes about 5-6 months to mature from the time of sowing. However, this may vary depending on the variety and environmental conditions.
It is important to monitor the crop regularly for pests and diseases and to provide the necessary nutrients, water, and other inputs to ensure optimal growth and yield. Harvesting should be done when the pods have turned brown and dry, and the seeds have reached their maximum size and maturity
Harvesting:
Arhar is ready for harvesting in 5-6 months after planting. Harvest when pods turn brown and dry. Remove the pods and dry them in the sun for 2-3 days. Thresh and winnow the dried pods to remove the seeds.
How to get Arhar dal from Arhar pods:
Harvest mature Arhar pods from the plant when they are dry and turning brown.
Remove the seeds from the pods by threshing them. You can do this manually by beating the pods with a stick or by using a machine.
Once the seeds are separated, remove any dirt or debris by winnowing the seeds. You can do this by throwing the seeds and debris up in the air, allowing the wind to blow away the lighter debris.
Clean the seeds thoroughly and soak them in water for a few hours.
Drain the water and rinse the seeds.
Cook the seeds in boiling water until they are tender. This usually takes around 20-30 minutes.
Drain the water and let the cooked seeds cool down.
Once the cooked seeds have cooled, remove the outer shell or skin by rubbing the seeds between your palms.
Separate the dal from the outer skin by sieving the mixture through a fine mesh sieve.
Clean the dal thoroughly by rinsing it with water.
Arhar dal is now ready to be used in various dishes such as curries, soups, and stews.
Yield:
The average yield of Arhar is around 800-1000 kg/ha.
Benefits and advantages:
Survive in poor soil conditions and tolerant of dry weather.
Nutritious and high-protein pulse crop.
Leaves can be used for animal feed or fodder
The fast-growing plants make good shade for other crops, e.g. vegetables, herbs, vanilla..
Perennial for up to 5 years.
Woody parts can be used for firewood.
Water and nutrients from deep in the soil can be caught by its deep taproot.
Plants can be used along with contour barriers for erosion control.
Helps in agro-ecology, Arhar as an excellent for inter crop farming. Even after the harvesting of the inter crops,it continues protecting the soil.
Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. This process is called vermicomposting.
Vermicast (also called worm castings (worm humus, worm manure, or worm faeces) is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. These excreta have been shown to contain reduced levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than the organic materials before vermicomposting.
Vermicompost is rich in microbial life which converts nutrients already present in the soil into plant- available forms. Unlike other compost, worm castings also contain worm mucus which prevent nutrients from washing away with the first watering and holds moisture better than plain soil.
Suitable Worm Species
Eisenia fetida (Europe), the red wiggler or tiger worm. Closely related to Eisenia andrei, which is also usable.
Eisenia hortensis (Europe), European night crawlers, prefers high C: N material.
Eudrilus eugeniae (West Africa), African Night crawlers. Useful in the tropics.
Perionyx excavatus (South and East Asia), blueworms. May be used in the tropics and subtropics.
Lampito mauritii (Southern Asia), used locally. These species commonly are found in organic-rich soils throughout Europe and North America and live in rotting vegetation, compost, and manure piles.
All above are shallow-dwelling and feed on decomposing plant matter in the soil. They adapt easily to live on food or plant waste in the confines of a worm bin.
Composting worms are available to order online, from nursery mail-order suppliers or angling shops where they are sold as bait. They can also be collected from compost and manure piles.
These species are not the same worms that are found in ordinary soil or on pavement when the soil is flooded by water. Such worms are not suitable.
Climate and Temperature
There may be differences in vermicomposting method depending on the climate. It is necessary to monitor the temperatures of large-scale bin systems (which can have high heat-retentive properties), as the raw materials or feed stocks used can compost, heating up the worm bins as they decay and killing the worms.
If a worm bin is kept outside, it should be placed in a sheltered position away from direct sunlight and insulated against frost in winter.
Methods to make Vermicompost
Vermicomposting is easily adapted for small farms and household vegetable and flower garden. Main steps to produce vermi casting fertilizer are same in both methods.
For your kitchen garden:
Requires bins which one can make from any plastic or rubber or paint container, or buy ready made bins from agriculture stores. The bins have sufficient holes on the sides and in the bottom for aeration and excess water.
The vermicomposting steps start with first having carbon rich fluffy bedding which could be made of straw, wheat straw, newspaper shredding, cardboard shredding, cow manure, brown leaves and like. On top of this we release our worms. Now we put in a small quantity of our kitchen waste like vegetable leavings, fruit peels, coffee grounds, tea leaves, tea bags, corn husk, egg shells, bread, crackers, etc. but no cooked foot or meat. Sprinkle water.
Close tight the lid and put the bin where it would not be disturbed by roving cats or dogs. Composting requires moisture and darkness in the bin. To prevent worms from escaping, put bin in a lighted place as worms do not like light.
Check your bin regularly. You will need to add more kitchen waste (as food for worms) and carbon material till such time capacity is full. As it progresses take out vermi castings material out of the bin and add more carbon and food materials.
At the end of cycle, when full vermicompost can be seen to have been done, it is time to harvest worms from the composed material and start another bin. Harvesting should begin when the bedding and consumed food has turned a rich dark brown, with a consistency of coffee grounds. Waiting longer can result in a sludgy material that is difficult to harvest and may become anaerobic and odorous.
One commonly used method of harvesting vermicompost is to dump the bin onto a tarp in bright light, allowing the worms to burrow down to escape the light. Castings can then be separated by slowly scraping them away, pausing periodically to let the worms burrow further. Eventually, you are left with a pile of worms.
Another variation is to use two bins one on top of other. Worms from the top bin would escape to the bottom bin after food is exhausted in the top bin and continue eating and producing worm castings in the second bin. The top bin is removed. And another bin is now placed below the previous bottom bin.
Method for small Farms
HDPE binBrick bin
Determine a suitable place in a shady area and slightly elevated to deal with rains.
A bin needs to be made about one meter wide and about 0.6 meter height. Length 3 meter to 15 meter depends on convenience,
Place about six inches of dry brown material like leaves, pieces of twigs, cow manure, wheat straw, cardboard materials, newspaper cuttings etc. On top of this layer put greens and any agricultural greens. Layer it up till it is near to the top, on top put cow dung manure.
Now put in worms at about 200 to 250 gms per cu.meter on the top layer.
Sprinkle water on the top layer till the material is somewhat soggy,
Cover with gunny bags so that no light can penetrate. Worms like darkness and they would burrow inside the layers.
For protection put a shed on top of the beds,
Keep on monitoring the moisture level and sprinkle water accordingly.
Monitor the upper beds for vermi castings which can be removed and kept away.
It will likely take 3 to 5 months depending on environment factors for full vermicompost process.
At the end separate the worms.
typical layering
Benefits
Soil
Improves soil aeration.
Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulase).
Microbial activity in worm castings is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and organic matter that the worm ingests.
Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil.
Improves water holding capacity.
Plant growth
Enhances germination, plant growth, and crop yield.
It helps in root and plant growth.
Enriches soil organisms (adding plant hormones such as auxins and gibberellic acid).
Economic.
Biowaste conversion reduces waste flow to landfills. Elimination of biowastes from the waste stream reduces contamination of other recyclables collected in a single bin (a common problem in communities practicing single-stream recycling).
Creates low-skill jobs at local level.
Low capital investment and relatively simple technologies make vermicomposting practical for less-developed agricultural regions.
Environmental
Helps to close the “metabolic gap” through recycling waste on-site.
Large systems often use temperature control and mechanized harvesting; however other equipment is relatively simple and does not wear out quickly.
Production reduces greenhouse gas emissions such as methane and nitric oxide (produced in landfills or incinerators when not composted).
Uses
Vermicompost can be mixed directly into the soil.
Mixed with water to make a liquid fertilizer known as worm tea.
The light brown waste liquid, or leachate, that drains into the bottom of some vermicomposting systems is not worm tea. It is best discarded or applied back to the bin when added moisture is needed for further processing.
The pH, nutrient, and microbial content of Vermicompost fertilizers vary upon the inputs fed to worms. Pulverized limestone or calcium carbonate can be added to the system to raise the pH.
Operational Precautions and Prevention
Meat or dairy product attract rodents and flies and should not be used.
In warm weather, fruit and vinegar flies breed in the bins if fruit and vegetable waste is not thoroughly covered with bedding. Thoroughly cover the waste by at least 5 centimeters of bedding.
Maintaining the correct pH (close to neutral) and water content of the bin (just enough water where squeezed bedding drips a couple of drops) also avoids these pests.
Worms generally stay in the bin, but may try to leave the bin when first introduced, or often after a rainstorm when the humidity outside is high. Maintain adequate conditions in the worm bin and put a light over the bin when first introducing worms.
In order to avoid over-fertilization issues, such as nitrogen burn, vermicompost can be diluted as a tea 50:50 with water, or as a solid can be mixed in 50:50 with potting soil.
It has been some time since I put up a blog on Lemon Farming. I have received several calls for more information regarding fertilization and prevention of fruit and plant damage from pests, viruses, diseases, etc. I will try to bring out some more information on these aspects in this blog. For those who have just joined this subject, I suggest kindly go through the first blog Lemon Farming on this website.
Fertilization tips:
As I usually do in all fertilization tips, it is always advisable to first get your soil and water analyzed for EC, pH, N.P, K, and other fertilizers present and absent. These analysis values are to be reduced from the overall fertilizer scheme. Interested may please see Control E.C. and pH.
So to make it simpler, we take two types of recommendations for lemon farming – one area-wise and the second per plant-wise. Nitrogen needs to be applied at least 3 times in a growing season, for example in February, May, and September.
Area wise: for one acre of land lemon farming for one season.
Use DAP, MOP, and Urea as 50, 40, and 80 kg respectively, or
Use MOP, SSP, and Urea as 40, 150, and 100 kg respectively, or
Use a pre-mixed 10-26-26 NPK and Urea as 80 kg each
No of Plants wise: example 100 plants lemon farming
Use DAP, MOP, and Urea as 60, 100,100 kg respectively, or
Use a premixed 10-26-26, MOP, and Urea as 110, 50,100 kg respectively.
Lemon is a hard user of nitrogen and it would be best to keep it spray fertilized at alternate months. Lemon also requires nutrients and is best by spraying.
Pests, fungi, Bacterial Diseases, and other identification and treatment in lemon farming.
Now let us take up what damages to our lemon plants, why they occur and how to control them. The table below depicts some typical damage types.
Name
Symptoms
Treatment
How it looks
Anthracnose), Alternaria rot, and brown rot (all fungus)
Light tan spots on leaves; dry brown to black spots on fruit; black rot in the navel and spreads; ripe fruit turns light brown.
Apply sprays of copper oxychloride, and carbendazim. Avoid too much irrigation.
Greening disease (bacteria)
Blotchy mottling of leaves, veins yellow, stunted growth. Yellow shoot on the plant in the starting.
The tree should be removed
Aphids (insects)
Curled deformed leaves, stunted growth, and small insects under leaves/shoots, produce honeydew which attracts ants
1 gm per liter spray of Acephate 75% SP
Slugs and snails
Feeding damage in leaves, flowers, silvery trails, and large holes in leaves.
Forate in the soil, dichlorophos spray. Pick and destroy by hand.
Silver mites
Feed on exposed surfaces of fruit. The skin turns silvery, reddish, or black. Lose the glossy nature.
Early stages use oil/soap or soap solutions on the underside of leaves. Use Febpyroximate 5% e.c. twice with two weeks interval.
caterpillars
New leaves have holes. Feeds on buds and early fruit.
Sanitary conditions in the field. Use Coragen or Fame 5 ml/15 ltr spray. Use methomyl.
Ants
Feed on twigs, bark, leaves, and honeydew excreted by insects
Use sticky tree bands and prune the trunk at least 30 cm from the ground. Use Borax. Use soap solutions spray.
Excessive fruit drop
Sudden temperature change, heat wave, too much or too little watering, nutrient deficiency.
Check nutrient deficiency and apply appropriate fertilizer. Check moisture.
Yellow leaves, no mites
Overwatering
Decrease irrigation
Calcium deficiency
Random yellow spots on leaves, wilt of plant, curled leaves, poor development.
Use calcium fertilizers in soil, lime(if soil pH is negative), gypsum(if soil pH is positive), cal nitrate spray
Thrips
Ring of scarred tissue on fruit near the stem end. Young leaves deformed.
Count no of thrips. If less ignore. Use neem oil spray. Water the plant. Spray pyrethrin or imidacloprid.
Sunburn
Wilting and yellow of leaves from margins
White clay, talc, or cal carbonate solution spray.
Leafminer
Twisted and deformed new leaves. Tunnels seen in leaves. Upward curling of leaves.
Remove infected leaves. If infestation is more use imidacloprid, dichlorvos (Nuvan)
Whitefly
If branches shook, tine whiteflies fly out. At rest spots seen on leaves. Whiteflies secrete honeydew and attract ants.
The prime objective is to remove ants. Best use soap, soap and oil, and soap, oil, and neem oil solution sprays. Use borax for ants.
Nutrient Deficiency symptoms in lemon farming.
Using fertilizers slowly increases productivity at first, but pushing it beyond a point is detrimental to productivity and if not corrected, plants will die. A balancing of Fertigation is thus most essential in fertility management. Table below gives some common deficiency symptoms of nutrients. This should help farmers for a quick and early detection of deficient nutrients.
Nutrient Deficiency symptoms
Nitrogen
Older leaves turn yellow and gradually move upwards
Spray urea solution.
Phosphorus
Brownish discoloration along the vein on underside of old leaves. Fruit is coarse thick rinds & low juice.
Potassium
Burnt edges of older leaves. Increased sensitivity to diseases. Production less and poor quality. Small fruit, thin peel.
Foliar spray of potassium nitrate.
Magnesium
Older leave yellow with interveinal chlorosis. Slow growth.
Foliar spray of Magnesium, give NPK with magnesium in soil
Calcium
As above
Boron
Premature wilting, shedding of leaves, bushing appearance, splitting in fruit, gum spots, abnormal shape
Foliar spray of Borax.
Copper
Slow growth of plant; stunted, distorted young leaves, death of growing point,
Foliar spray of copper sulphate fortnightly.
Iron
Thin, interregnal chlorosis in young leaves.
Foliar spray of iron sulphate FESO4
zinc
Irregular chlorite leaf spots, small size leaves and dieback of twigs. Small thin peel fruit.
