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Soybeans – Farming and Uses

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Soybeans – Farming and Uses

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Soybeans originated in Southeast Asia and were first domesticated by Chinese farmers around 1100 BC.  By the first century AD, soybeans were grown in Japan and many other countries. The soybean or soy bean (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.

By the 17th century through trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and supposedly reached Indian Subcontinent by this period.

By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent.

In 1990s due to advancement of science and research, herbicide resistant variety of Soybean was made available to the farmers. The farmers with such variety could use weedicides safely without danger to their soybean plants. This also meant greater freedom from mechanical and/or manual weeding of the crops reducing costs.

They are now a major crop in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, China and almost all over world. It is great for crop rotation. Soy is a high protein food and also used as sauce, bean curd, soy milk, tempeh, natto and miso.

Soybeans are one of the biotech food crops that have been genetically modified and the same are being used in a number of products.  Although various countries ban the use of genetically modified seeds, the use is prevalent as they are less susceptible to infestations and diseases.

Soybean Cultivation

Sowing times for Soybean Crop

Soybeans can grow in wide range of soils; for best production grow in rich organic soils. Add suitable bacteria as is done in the case of other legumes.

India has two seasons of cultivation in both kharif and summer seasons. Spring sowing done between 15th Feb to 15th March. Kharif crop is sown with onset of monsoon of last week of June to first week of July.

Climatic requirement

Soybean requires climates with warm and moist summers with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 degree centigrade.  Temperatures outside this range stunt the growth.

Soil Requirements

Soybean can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam to black cotton soils having good drainage capacity. Soil should be well drained and fertile. A pH range between 6.0 and 7.5 is favorable for its cultivation..

Land Preparation for soybean farming

Prepare field by one or two ploughing followed by two or three cross harrowing and planking. The field should be well leveled and free from weeds and stubble. For summer season crop, pre-sowing irrigation should be given immediately after harvesting of the previous crop. Field should be leveled to minimize the loss of moisture by evaporation from the soil. One feet wide ridges and furrows or beds and channels of appropriate width are good for optimizing soybean production.  If sown for fodder purpose, density of seed is increased.

Fertilizer Application to Beds

15 to 25 T/ha well decomposed farm yard manure (FYM) should be incorporated into soil at the time of preparation of the land. Apply 50 kg/ha N, 150 kg/ha Phosphate, 25 kg/ha Potash in summer crops in irrigated land. Apply Zinc sulfate and Borax in small quantities.

A word of advice  — It is always advisable to have a soil water analysis done for deciding on actual quantity of application of inorganic fertilizers to avoid wastage.

Do this Also – seed treatment

Before sowing, seeds should be treated with Thiram or Captan @ 2 to 3 g/kg of seeds.

Mix the seeds in 10% cooled jaggery solution mixed with Rhizobium bio fertilizer(3) @ 20-30 g/kg.Dry for 6-8 hr in shade and sow the seeds within 12 hrs.

Seed Spacing

Seeds are spaced at at about 5 cm plant to plant and distanced 45 cm line to line for kharif crop and at 30 cm x 10 cm for Rabi and summer.

Seed Rate:

Use about 12 to 16 kg/ha in kharif season and 20-25 kg/ha Rabi and summer seasons. Depth of seeds is around 2 -3 cm in heavy soils. In light soils, keep depth around 3 -4 cm.

Seed sowing is either (a) Manual (Broadcasting, Line Sowing) or (b) Mechanical (Seed drill).

Irrigation 

For rain fed crop, irrigation is not needed but soil drainage is important.

For summer season crop, five to six irrigation may be given. First irrigation should be given at 20-25 days after sowing and subsequent irrigation should be given at an interval of 12-15 days.

 Irrigation should not be given at full bloom stage of the crop. Late flowering and early pod filling stages are critical stages for irrigation.

Weed Control in Soybean Farming   

One or two inter-culturing and one to two weeding should be carried out at 20 and 45 days after sowing. Use appropriate weedicide, as a spray or mixed with sand, immediately after sowing of the seeds.

Methods of cropping

Soybean can be mixed with maize, sesamum etc.  it can be inter cropped with lentils, cotton, sugarcane and rotated with wheat, potato, gram, tobacco.

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Pests and Diseases Control  

Major pest are borers which make holes in young pods and eats the seeds. Hand collection and disposal can be done. Spray with Dimethoate or Phosphomidan @ 2 ml/liter of water.

Use Bavistin or M45 for diseases like wilting. Powdery Mildew is also a threat which can be controlled by spraying Dithane M45.

One may also refer to my blog Diseases and Pests.

Nutritional Value of Soybeans

Table below shows a comparison of nutrients, vitamins and fats (courtesy: wikipedia)

nutritional value of soybeans compared to maize, rice and wheat

Approximate Yield

Depending on the variety selected and the season, farmers can expect a yield of 18 to 35 quintals/ha.

World Production

soybeans production in top five countries in 2019

Uses of Soybeans

Soybean is an excellent source of high quality protein. It is consumed in different ways as tofu, sauce, nuggets and so many other preparations. Additionally it has vitamin C and other minerals and nutrients as brought out in table.

Being a short duration crop it also provides an excellent green fodder to the animals. Soybean is a leguminous crop. It has the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. It is also used as green manure crop.

Soybeans fit well in various multiple and inter cropping systems. After picking of pods, Soybean plants may be used as green fodder or can be incorporated as green manure.

When to Harvest Soybean

Soybean matures from 55 to 145 days depending on the variety which has been sown. Fruits can be harvested once in 3 to 4 days. Maturity of crop is indicated when leaves turn yellow and drop and pods dry out. Harvesting is done by sickle and then threshing is done to get soybeans. .

For Soybean harvest early morning hours are best suited . After harvest fruits should be kept in cool place and avoid direct exposure to sunlight.

Harvesting before the maturity of crop, usually result in lower yields, while delayed harvesting results in shattering of pods and other losses caused by pests. Harvesting during rains and overcast weather invitation to fungal infection.

References:  wikipedia

1. Rabi crop:Rabi cropping season is from October-March (winter)

2. Kharif crop: Kharif cropping season is from July –October during south-west monsoon in India.

3. Rhizobium:  bacteria associated with the formation of root nodules on plants. These bacteria live in symbiosis with legumes. They take in nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it on to the plant, allowing it to grow in soil low in nitrogen.

Posted in Pulses Tagged with: ,

GREEN GRAM MUNG (Moong) FARMING

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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

green gram mung plant with flowering

Green Gram Mung is an annual vine with yellow flowers and fuzzy brown pods.

The English word mung originated (and used as is) from the Hindi word मूंग (“moong”), which is derived from the Sanskrit word मुद्ग (“mudga”).

Green Gram Mung belongs to Vigna Radiata family Leguminoseae. It is one of the most important pulse crops. The This crop was domesticated in India, where its progenitor (Vigna radiata subspecies sublobata) occurs wild.

Mung is cultivated in India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, China, Fiji, Queens land and Africa, Russia, Kazakistan and other many places.

Carbonized Green Gram Mungs have been discovered in many archeological sites in India dating back more than 4,000 years. Some scholars hold that two separate domestications of Mung happened in the northwest and south of India. By about 3500 years ago Green Gram Mungs were widely cultivated throughout India.

Cultivated Mungs later spread from India to China and Southeast Asia. Archaeobotanical research at the site of Khao Sam Kaeo in southern Thailand indicates that Green Gram Mungs had arrived in Thailand by at least 2,200 years ago.

Area and Distribution: 

Green Gram Mung is cultivated in the countries of India, Burma, Srilanka, Pakistan, China, Fiji, Queens land and Africa. India is the major producer in the world and it is grown in almost all the states. The important growing States in the country are Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Bihar.

Mung Beans

Sowing Green Gram Mung Crop

When to sow

Green Gram Mung is primarily a crop of rainy season; however, with the development of early maturing varieties, it has proved to be an ideal crop for spring and summer seasons as well. It is grown in all the three seasons in the country.

Summer season, from about middle of March to last week of June, is most suitable as there are plenty of sunshine periods. During this period high temperature and low humidity keep insects and disease infestations at their lowest.

In North India, it is cultivated in both kharif(2) and summer seasons. In South India, it is cultivated in Rabi(1) season.

Climatic requirement

Green Gram Mung is best suited to areas having an annual rainfall of 60 to 75 cm. It requires a hot and warm climate. Mung is considered to be hardiest among all pulse crops and can tolerate drought to a great extent. Hence, it is successfully grown in any adverse conditions and particularly in drought prone areas during kharif season. Water logging and cloudy weather are harmful for the crop.

Soil Requirements for Green Gram Mung

Green Gram Mung can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam to black cotton soils having good drainage capacity. The crop is very sensitive to water logging conditions.

Land Preparation

Prepare field by one or two ploughing followed by two or three cross harrowing and planking. The field should be well leveled and free from weeds and stubbles. For summer season crop, pre-sowing irrigation should be given immediately after harvesting of the previous crop. Field should be leveled to minimize the loss of moisture by evaporation from the soil.

Fertilizer Application for Green Gram Mung

10 to 12 t/ha and well decomposed FYM should be incorporated into soil at the time of preparation of the land. Apply 20 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha Phosphate, 25 kg/ha Potash in summer crops in irrigated land. Application may be half in rain fed areas. Apply zinc and sulphur.

A word of advice  —  It is always advisable to have a soil water analysis done for deciding on actual quantity of application of inorganic fertilizers to avoid wastage.

Do this Also – seed treatment

Before sowing, seeds should be treated with Thiram or Captan @ 2 to 3 g/kg of seeds.

Mix the seeds in 10% cooled gur (jaggery) solution mixed with Rhizobium biofertilizer(3) @ 20-30 g/kg. Dry for 6-8 hr in shade and sow the seeds within 12 hrs.

Seed Spacing

Seeds are spaced at 45 cm x 10 cm for kharif crop and at 30 cm x 10 cm for Rabi and summer.

Seed Rate:

Use about 12 to 16 kg/ha in kharif season and 20-25 kg/ha Rabi and summer seasons. Seeds should be sown at a depth of 5-7 cm.

Seed sowing is either (a) Manual (Broadcasting, Line Sowing) or (b) Mechanical (Seed drill).

Irrigation required by Green Gram Mung

For rain fed crop, irrigation is not needed but drainage is very important because this crop is crop is very much sensitive to water logging.

For summer season crop, five to six irrigations may be given. First irrigation should be given at 20-25 DAS and subsequent irrigations should be given at an interval of 12-15 days.

 Irrigation should not be given at full bloom stage of the crop. Late flowering and early pod filling stages are critical stages for irrigation.

Weed Control in Green Gram Mung Farming   

One or two inter-culturing and one to two weeding should be carried out at 20 and 45 days after sowing. Weedicide chemicals like Glyphosate 800 ml per acre, Fluchloralin or Pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg/ha or oxadiazon @ 0.25 kg/ha as pre-emergence may be applied when hand weeding is not possible due to continuous rains during kharif.

Methods of cropping

Early maturing varieties mature in 60-70 days and they can be fitted between kharif and Rabi season crops. Green Gram Mung is taken with cotton as inter crop in Saurashtra region during kharif season. It is also grown as mixed crop with pearl millet, sorghum, maize and cotton. It is taken in a crop sequence of sorghum-wheat-Green Gram Mung, sorghum-potato-Green Gram Mung or pearl millet-wheat-Green Gram Mung.

Other sequences of cropping are with wheat, rice, sugarcane and maize. e.g. *Green Gram Mung– maize – wheat, *Green Gram Mung– rice – wheat, *Green Gram Mung– maize – toria – wheat, *Green Gram Mung– maize – potato – wheat. It is also being grown as intercrop in fruit crops like mango, citrus etc. when they are young.

Pests and Diseases Control  

Sucking Pest, Mites, Beetles, Borer, Caterpillars are some pests and diseases which affect this crop. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

Nutritional Value of Green Gram Mung

nutritional value of 100 gm of moong pulse

Approximate Yield

600 -700 kg/ha in Kharif season and around 1100 -1300 kg/ha in summer season.

Uses

  • This pulse is an excellent source of high quality protein. It is consumed in different ways as dal, halwa, snack and so many other preparations. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is synthesized in sprouted seeds of this pulse with increment in riboflavin and thiamine.
  • Prolific use in cuisines of India, east Asia, southeast Asia, Middle East and many other countries as paste, dal, sprouts and various innovative ways.
  • Being a short duration crop it also provides an excellent green fodder to the animals. It is a leguminous crop. It has the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. It is also used as green manure crop.
  • Moong fits well in various multiple and intercropping systems. After picking of pods, the plants may be used as fodder or can be incorporated as manure.

When to Harvest Green Gram Mung

Green Gram Mung can be harvested at 55 to 60 days after planting, yellow variety at 70-75 days whereas red variety at 80-90 days. Fruits can be harvested once in 3 to 4 days. Yellow and red fruits can be harvested when they have gained 50-80 per cent of the color development.

Early morning hours are best suited for harvest. After harvest fruits should be kept in cool place and avoid direct exposure to sunlight.

Harvesting before the maturity of crop, usually result in lower yields, while delayed harvesting results in shattering of pods and other losses caused by pests. Harvesting during rains and overcast weather invitation to fungal infection.

References:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mung_bean

  • Rabi crop: Rabi cropping season is from October-March (winter)
  • Kharif crop: Kharif cropping season is from July –October during south-west monsoon in India.
  • Rhizobium:  bacteria associated with the formation of root nodules on plants. These bacteria live in symbiosis with legumes. They take in nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it on to the plant, allowing it to grow in soil low in nitrogen.
Posted in Pulses, Uncategorized Tagged with: , ,

CAPSICUM FARMING AND ITS USES

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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Capsicum is thought to have originated from Mexico. Columbus introduced Capsicum in  Spain in 1493. Cultivation spread from the Mediterranean region to England by 1548 and to Central Europe by the close of the 16th century. Portuguese brought Capsicum into India prior to 1885. In China it came under cultivation during the late 1700s.

Capsicum is variously called as green pepper, sweet pepper, bell pepper, etc. In shape and pungency it is different from Chilli (Pepper). It is fleshy, roundish, more like a bell and hence named bell pepper. Almost all the varieties of green pepper are very mild in pungency, and some of them are non-pungent, and, as such, they can be used as stuffed vegetable.

There are five major cultivated species in the genus Capsicum.

Suitable Climate For Capsicum Growing.

Capsicum crop requires day temperature of 25-300C and night temperature of 18-200C with relative humidity of 50-60%. If temperature exceeds 350C or falls below 120C, fruit setting is affected. For this reason, Capsicum is a cool season crop. However, it is a favorite for polyhouse growers where it can be grown round the year where required temperature and relative humidity (RH) can be maintained.

It requires a similar climate like that of Chilli and is also susceptible to frost. It prefers milder climate than Chilli. Higher temperatures are detrimental to fruit set. High temperature and low relative humidity at the time of flowering are harmful to buds, flowers and small fruits. Moreover, higher night temperatures are found to be responsible for the higher capsicin (pungency) content in green pepper.

Soil Requirements

Although sweet pepper can be grown in almost all types of soils, well drained clay loam soil is considered ideal for its cultivation. It can withstand acidity to a certain extent. Levelled and raised beds have been found more suitable than sunken beds for its cultivation. On sandy loam soils, the crop can be successfully grown provided the manuring is done heavily and the crop is irrigated properly and timely. The most suitable pH range of soil for green pepper is 6 to 6.5.

Sowing Time

The sweet pepper is generally sown in August for the autumn-winter crop and in November for the spring -summer crop. In the hills of North Bengal sowing of seeds in the months of MarchApril (under cover) and September -October, is very successful for getting high yield. Plants sown in September and October take the longest period for development because of poor availability of light in winter.

Land Preparation and Bed Making

The land should be thoroughly ploughed and soil should be brought to fine tilth. Well decomposed organic manure at the rate of 20-25 kg per sq meter is mixed with soil. This would be sufficient to grow three capsicum crops successively. Raised beds are formed after bringing soil to fine tilth. The bed size should be 90-100 cm. wide and 15-22 cm. height. Between the beds walking space of 45 cm to 50 cm need to be provided.

Fertilizer Application to Beds

A basal fertilizer dose of 20:25:20 NPK is required per acre before transplanting of the seedlings. Farmers can give this in their various ways. One such way is to  use of  80 kg Calcium Ammonium Nitrate, 125 kg Super Phosphate and 32 kg Murate of Potash or 40 kg Sulphate Of Potash.  It requires phosphate in higher quantity. While the phosphate and potash is given in one single time, nitrogen would be staggered to 2 or 3 times. It needs to be stressed that Fertilizer application actually depends upon the soil of the farmer. It is recommended to have the soil and water analyzed before deciding on the actual quantity of fertilizers.

Do this Also

Make a mix Trichoderma harzianam, Pseudomonas lilacinous and Paecilomyces chilmdosporia 2 kg each are mixed thoroughly to 200 kg of powdered and moist neem cake. Cover the mix with wet gunny bags or dry grass. Avoid direct exposure to sunlight and rainfall. Add another 600 kg of neem cake to this mixture after 10 days. Apply the mix to beds. This will reduce soil borne pathogens and nematodes.

Mulching and Spacing

Black polyethylene non-recycled mulch film of 30-100 micron thick, 1.2 m wide, is used to cover the planting beds. Holes of 5 cm diameter are made on the polyethylene film as per the recommended spacing (45cm x 30cm). The planting beds are covered with the film by securing the edges of the sheet firmly in the soil. Mulching practice conserves water, controls weeds, reduces pests and diseases infestation,  and results in higher yield with good quality produce.

Raising Capsicum Seedlings

Seeds are raised in raised beds.  This could be inside a protected environment or outside depending upon the nursery. But the basics steps will remain same or similar.

Selection of seed is most important first step. The seedlings are raised in trays with cavities. 160-200 gm of seeds is required for approximately getting 16,000 to 20,000 seedlings for one acre area.

The trays are filled with sterilized coco peat and seeds are sown, one seed per cell to a depth of ½ cm and covered with the same media.

The trays are usually stacked vertically and covered with plastic sheet till seed germination.

Seeds germinate in about one week time. Thereafter, trays are shifted to net house/ polyhouse and lightly watered. After 15 days fertilization with MAP  (3g/L) is done. After 22 days seedlings are drenched with solution of NKP 19:19:19 (3g/L).

Seedling which having attained 4-5 leaves are ready to be be transplanted. The nursery beds should be irrigated before lifting of seedlings. The seedlings are transplanted in rows in the evening or during the cloudy day followed by irrigation. Generally, 50 to 60 days old seedlings are used for transplanting.

The seedlings will be ready for transplanting in 30-35 days. Before transplanting, seedlings are drenched with Copper oxychloride solution @ 3g/L. Sprays of Imidacloprid @ 0.2 ml/L and Chlorothelonil @ 1gm/L are also done. Use wetting agents with pesticides for greater persistence.

Transplanting of Capsicum Seedlings

The planting beds are watered to field capacity before transplanting. Seedlings of 30-35 days old are used for transplanting. Care should be taken to see that no damage is occurred to roots, while taking out the seedlings from individual cells of portray. Seedlings are transplanted into holes made in polyethylene mulch film at a depth of 5 cm. After transplanting, seedlings are drenched with 3 g/L copper oxychloride or 3 g/L captan or 2 g/L copper hydroxide solution to the base of seedlings at the rate of 25-30 ml per plant. Water the mulched beds daily during afternoon by using hose pipe for a week continuously is essential to avoid mortality due to heat trapped by mulch sheet.

Home hobby enthusiasts would do well to make a potting mixture of equal parts of compost, perlite and peat moss or coir.  Another potting mixture may be suggested to contain of 5 parts of wood chips, one part of peat moss and one part of perlite/vermiculite.

home plant 1-1/2 month old fruit setting can be seen
home plant 1-1/2 month old

Irrigation 

The first irrigation is given just after transplanting and later the field should be irrigated as and when required. Irrigation is essential in arid and semi-arid regions. 

Pruning

Capsicum plants are pruned to retain four stems. The tip of the plant splits into two at 5th or 6th node and are left to grow. These two branches again split in to two giving rise to four branches. At every node the tip splits into two giving rise to one strong branch and one week branch. The pruning is done after 30 days of transplanting at an interval of 8 to 10 days. This results in bigger fruits with better quality and higher productivity. The capsicum plants can also be pruned to two stems and same level of yield can be maintained.

Further Fertilization

Farmers know that nutrigation (irrigation + nutrient) is a continuing routine for the entire life cycle of the plants. Farmers need to make a chart for this purpose.  In addition to soil, nutrition would be required to be given through foliar sprays.

Capsicum crop is sprayed with water soluble fertilizers like potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate at every 3 week interval after 2 months of transplanting @ 3g/ l as foliar application. Magnesium sprays are also helpful in increasing productivity. Again please do check on the soil and water.

Companion Plants

Basil, Carrots, Eggplants, Onions, Cucumber, Spinach, Parsley are some companion plants which may be grown along with Capsicum.

Weed Control in Capsicum Farming   

Weed control needs to be an important cultural operation. Weeding, thinning and earthing up are the important intercultural operations of Capsicum farming.

Pests and Diseases Control  

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Capsicum is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

Insects

Downey Mildew: spraying Dithane M-45 at interval is recommended.

Green Jassids: spray  chloropyrofos/ dichlorvos/dimethoate/phorate/imidacloprid

Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray endosulfan/chloropyrofos. Spread phorate.

White Fly: spray Malathion. Drench with thimet.

Thrips: spray imidaclorprid/chloropyrosdimethoate. Several sprays may be required.

Scale insects: Spraying of parathion (0.03%) emulsion, dimethoate 150 ml and 250 ml kerosene oil in 100 liter of water or malathion@ 0.1 % or carbonyl @ 0.05% plus oil 1%.

Caterpillar may be handpicked and removed.

Leaf miner: Spraying of phosphomidon @ 1 ml or monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml. per liter 2 or 3 times fortnightly.

Grubs are in the earth and they chew on the roots. Later on they transform into beetles and chew leaves. Imidaclorprid spray and drenching is indicated.

Diseases

Fungal diseases, brown powdery on leaves. It is advised to remove such leaves. Spray neem oil one teaspoon into approximately 10 liters of water.

Leaf blight makes leaves turn yellow. Even though the vigor of the plant may not be much affected, plant look becomes ungainly. Remove such leaves.

Gummosis: Scraping off the affected area and application of Bordeaux mixture or copper oxyfluoride.

Anthracnose: Dried twigs are pruned off first. This to be followed by two sprays of carbendazim @1 grams/liter or copper oxychloride – 3 grams/liter fortnightly.

Spray of Zineb or Mancozeb may be regularly done weekly. Leaf curl can be prevented by spray of dimethoate.

Nutritional Value

All peppers are good source of vitamin A, C and K; however, the red ones are the highest in nutritional value. Red peppers also contain carotenoids such as lycopene and beta-cryptoxanthin. They are rich in phytochemicals and have significant amount of fiber. A substance capsaicin which occurs in the white membranes of other peppers is present in lesser amounts in bell peppers. Some of the nutrients available in bell peppers are given below.

Capsicum approximately have Vitamin A (8493 IU), Vitamin C (283 mg) and minerals like Calcium (13.4 mg), Magnesium (14.9 mg) Phosphorus (28.3 mg) Potassium, (263.7 mg) per 100 g fresh weight.

Usage of Capsicum

  • Capsicum and Capsicum rinds are popular in cooking. This versatile vegetable can be stuffed, roasted, used in stir-fries or simply eaten raw.
  • Capsicums are an excellent source of vitamin A and C (red contain more than green capsicums). Capsicums contain more vitamin C than oranges (based on weight)
  • They are also a good source of dietary fiber, vitamin E, B6 and folate.
  • Some research shows that taking capsules containing capsicum twice daily 30 minutes before eating for 12 weeks reduces stomach fat but not weight in overweight and obese people.
  • The sweetness of capsicums is due to their natural sugars (green capsicums have less sugar than red capsicums).
  • Energy – 100 g of green capsicum supplies 90 kJ (105 kJ from red capsicum).

Risks

Consuming Capsicums in moderate amounts is generally safe. However, the fruits can cause a stinging pain when in contact with open wounds, such as a cut lip or a mouth ulcer.

Some side effects of consumption are diarrhea, heartburn and upset stomach which may be harmful to pregnant women and children.

When to Harvest a Capsicum

Green capsicum can be harvested at 55 to 60 days after transplanting, yellow capsicum at 70-75 days whereas red capsicum at 80-90 days. Fruits can be harvested once in 3 to 4 days. Yellow and red fruits can be harvested when they have gained 50-80 per cent of the color development.

Early morning hours are best suited for capsicum harvest. After harvest fruits should be kept in cool place and avoid direct exposure to sunlight. The fruits should be plucked carefully and damage to plant should be minimized. The average yield of capsicum per acre is 30-40 tons. Capsicum plant can have life of around 8 months.

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Ginger Farming for Success

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Ginger Farming for Success

Table of Contents

Introduction

The botanical name of Ginger is Zingiber officinale. It is widely used as a spice crop. Ginger is valued for its medicinal properties and is a popular home remedy for acidity, cold, cough, etc. It is the root (rhizome) of the plant that is most useful. Recognizing Ginger is very easy as the leaves carry the pungent smell typical of Ginger. Apart from their use as a spice, young roots of Ginger are used as flavoring agents in Chinese and Japanese cuisine.

Ginger plant looks slender like a reed which is 3-4 feet tall. The leaves are thin and green in color. The beauty of the plant is that it produces pink and white flower buds in clusters which bloom into yellow flowers. Some people use this plant for landscaping owing to this precise reason. When the stalk starts withering, crop is harvested and rhizomes are washed.

Suitable Climate for Ginger Growing.

Ginger is cultivated at an altitude of 1500 meters above sea level in warm and humid climate. A moderate rainfall during sprouting time and a heavy, well-distributed rain at the time of growth is the most ideal situation for growing Ginger. In case of absence of showers during sprouting period, the crop must be irrigated. The soil must stay moist so that sprouting happens. However, the weather must be dry before harvesting.

Ginger can grow under both irrigated and rain-fed conditions. The best time for planting is just after the pre-monsoon showers. In case there are no pre-monsoon showers, then irrigation is necessary. Else the seed rhizomes would dry up.

Soil Requirements

Ginger can grow in all sorts of soils. Well drained sandy loam, red soil and clay-loam soils rich in humus with fairly good Potash content are best for its cultivation. The soil should be well aerated. Heavy soil should be avoided. Soils with high organic matter are preferred; Incorporate FYM (Farm Yard Manure) or compost during land preparation. Ensure Soil has good internal drainage while laying out field. Over watering or stagnant water is harmful to Ginger.

Home hobby enthusiasts would do well to make a potting mixture of equal parts of compost, perlite and peat moss or coir.  Another potting mixture may be suggested to contain of 5 parts of wood chips, one part of peat moss and one part of perlite/vermiculite.

Crop Rotation

Ginger is an exhausting crop as it draws a huge amount of nutrients from the soil. Therefore, crop rotation is necessary. It is most commonly rotated with tapioca, maize, paddy, ragi and vegetables. It is also mixed with castor and red gram. In Kerala, it is grown as an inter-crop with areca nut, orange, coffee and coconuts. Avoid cropping potatoes, chilies, tomatoes, peanuts and brinjal since they are hosts for Ralstonia solanacearum which is a wilt causing agent.

The pH level for Ginger between 5.5 and 6.5 is good; however they can tolerate with reduced productivity pH range of 4 – 9.

Sowing period

Sowing is done in May in good pre-monsoon rainfall areas which will good yield. Otherwise, sowing is done in February to March with irrigated conditions. It is a 6 – 8 month crop. 

Planting material

Well developed, healthy and disease free, whole or split, mother rhizomes weighing 35-44g are used for planting. For organic production, the seeds may not be treated with chemicals.  

The seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of app 5 cm length. Each one should have one or two good buds. Seed rate varies from region to region from app 1500 to 1800 kg/ha. Treat rhizomes with M45 for about 30 minutes. Thereafter, dry the same in shade before planting.

Land preparation

Land is prepared by ploughing 3 or 4 times (or as required). The earth should not have any lumps or boulders. It should be well aerated. Apply FYM and mix well. The areas where the rainfall is sufficiently early, crop can be planted during April-May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Some places soil is burned to remove any pests and diseases.

Prepare beds of 15 cm height 1 m. wide and any convenient length. Small pits are made with a hand hoe in the beds in rows with spacing of 25x 30 cm and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The optimum spacing in furrows and ridges is about 45-60 cm between the beds    and 25 cm between the plants.

Fertilization

Fertilizer application actually depends upon the soil of the farmer. It is recommended to have the soil and water analyzed before deciding on the actual quantity of fertilizers.

Farm yard manure @20 t/ha and Neem cake are applied as basal dressing. Beds are earthed up each time after top dressing. The NPK recommendation is 125:37:37 kg per ha. Whole Phosphorus (P) and Potash (K2O) is given as basal dose at the time planting while Nitrogen (N) is applied as 25kg each at basal, 40 and 90 days after planting i.e., 75 kg N.

Companion Plants

Ginger grows well with most plants, as it likes filtered  light. Growing under fruit trees is fantastic, also grow with tomatoes, Chilies, coconut, and banana..

Irrigation

Before land preparation, field should be wetted and then plowed. Light irrigation is required after planting. During build up of crop adequate irrigation is required. There should be no irrigation and dry conditions are required one month before harvesting.  Ginger is grown as rain fed crop.

Production

Mulching and Weed control

Apply mulching layers immediately after planting with tree leaves, purali, sugarcane trash or whatever available with the farmer. This may be up to about 5 cm height. Weeding operation may be done after about 30 days when mulch should be removed first.  Apply Mulch after weeding and application of fertilizes. Repeat operations at each fertilizer application.

Pests and Diseases Control  

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Ginger is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

  • Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray Malathion/Endosulfan/Chloropyrofos. Spread Phorate.
  • Rhizome scale:  Dip rhizomes in Quinalphos 0.1% both prior to storage and sowing.
  • Scale insects: Spraying of Parathion (0.03%) emulsion, Dimethoate 150 ml and 250 ml kerosene oil in 100 liter of water or Malathion@ 0.1 % or Carbonyl @ 0.05% plus oil 1%.
  • Rhizome rot: Precaution: Dip in M-45 solution both before storage and before sowing. After attack: drench with M-45 solution.
  • Fungal diseases, brown powdery on leaves. Remove such leaves. Spray Neem oil one teaspoon into approximately 10 liters of water.
  • Leaf blight makes leaves turn yellow. Therefore, even though the vigor of the plant may not be much affected, plant look becomes ungainly. Remove such leaves.
  • Gummosis: Scraping off the affected area and application of Bordeaux mixture or Copper Oxyfluoride.
  • Anthracnose: Dried twigs are pruned off first. This to be followed by two sprays of Carbendazim @1 grams/liter or copper oxychloride – 3 grams/liter fortnightly. Spray of Zineb or Mancozeb may be regularly done weekly.

Harvesting

Ginger crop is generally of 6 – 8 months.  6 months for vegetable and 8 months for dry Ginger. The exact time period will also depend on the variety chosen when sowing. Plants are ready for harvesting when leaves of Ginger turn yellowish and dry. Gather by hand picking the clumps. Clean from mud and other materials.

Processing for marketing

Curing

Vegetable Ginger: Wash the harvested rhizomes in water and sundry for one day to obtain fresh vegetable Ginger.

Dry Ginger:

  1. Soak rhizomes in water for 8 hours or so.
  2. Rub the rhizomes and clear any extra from the surfaces.
  3. Wash again in water
  4. Scrap the skin of the Ginger very lightly and very carefully.
  5. Wash and sundry for one week
  6. Rub the dry rhizomes against each other.  This will remove any loose skin particles and dirt.

Uses of Ginger

  • Condiment
  • dye
  • drug
  • cosmetics
  • religious ceremonies

Seed storage 

Store seed rhizomes after heaping under a higher ground in shade and plastered with mixed cow dung.  Alternatively, storage can also be done in pits dug in earth and covered. Treat with M-45 and Quinalphos solutions before storing.

Further reads:

agrifarming.in

indiaagronet

Posted in Herbs Tagged with: ,

Turmeric Farming – Planting to Harvesting

Posted on by nkp — No Comments ↓
Table of Contents

Turmeric – Introduction

Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa, an herbaceous plant. Depending upon the Turmeric variety, a rhizome has 1.8-5.4% curcumin, the pigment and 2.5-7.2% of essential oil. It is used as an important condiment and as a dye. Turmeric finds application in drug and cosmetic industries. It has anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and disease-fighting qualities. Turmeric is a perennial herb, native of south Asia. It is also known as ‘Indian Saffron’. Leaves are long, broad and of bright green color. Flowers are of pale yellow color. India is world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of Turmeric. In India, Andhra Pradesh is the leading state followed by Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Orissa, Kerala and Bihar.

Suitable Climate for Turmeric

Turmeric can be grown from sea level to 1500m in the hills, at a temperature range of 20-300C with a rainfall of 1500-2250mm per annum. It is also grown as an irrigated crop.

Soil requirement

Turmeric can grow in all sorts of soils. Well drained sandy loam, red soil and clay-loam soils rich in humus with fairly good Potash content are best for its cultivation. The soil should be well aerated. Heavy soil should be avoided. Soils with high organic matter are preferred; Incorporate FYM (Farm Yard Manure) or compost during land preparation. Ensure Soil has good internal drainage while laying out field. Over watering or stagnant water is harmful to Turmeric.

Home hobby enthusiasts would do well to make a potting mixture of equal parts of compost, perlite and peat moss or coir.  Another potting mixture may be suggested to contain of 5 parts of wood chips, one part of peat moss and one part of perlite/vermiculite.

Sowing period

Sowing is done in April in good pre-monsoon rainfall areas which will good yield. Otherwise, sowing is done in June. It is a 6 – 8 month crop.  Treat seed with Quinalphos and M-45 solutions for 30 minutes before sowing is done.

It is cultivated as a subsidiary crop to Ginger in some areas and in other areas with Chili, Colocasia, Onion, Brinjal and Cereals like Maize, Ragi etc.

Land Preparation

Land is prepared by ploughing 3 or 4 times (or as required). The earth should not have any lumps or boulders. It should be well aerated. Apply FYM and mix well. Apply Urea, Superphosphate and Potash in the top soil and mixed well. The areas where the rainfall is sufficiently early, crop can be planted during April-May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Since Turmeric is a shade loving plant, castor or Sesbania grandiflora may be raised along the border lines in the field

Turmeric Planting material and planting

Well developed, healthy and disease free, whole or split, mother rhizomes of turmeric weighing 35-44g are used for planting. Rhizomes are treated with 0.3% Dithane M-45 and 0.5% Malathion for 30 minutes before storing.

Prepare beds of 15 cm height 1 m. wide and any convenient length. Small pits are made with a hand hoe in the beds in rows with spacing of 25x 30 cm and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The optimum spacing in furrows and ridges is about 45-60 cm between the beds    and 25 cm between the plants. Approximately 2500 kg of rhizomes are required for one hectare.

Fertilization

Fertilizer application actually depends upon the soil of the farmer. It is recommended to have the soil and water analyzed before deciding on the actual quantity of fertilizers.

Farm yard manure @10 t/ha is applied as basal dressing. Beds are earthed up each time after top dressing. The NPK recommendation is 125:37:37 kg per ha. Whole Phosphorus (P) and Potash (K2O) is given as basal dose at the time planting while Nitrogen (N) is applied as 25kg each at basal, 30,60,90 and 120 days after planting i.e., 125kg N.

Some growers may like to give the fertilizers in three parts.

Companion Plants

Turmeric grows well with most plants, as it likes filtered  light growing under fruit trees is fantastic, also grow with Kaffir lime, Chilies, Lemongrass, and Coriander..

Irrigation

Careful irrigation practices are to be put in place for watering. Water needs to be sufficient but over watering is to be avoided.  Rhizome bulking requires sufficient moisture presence in the field.

Typical Production of Turmeric

The average yield per hectare is 20-25 tonnes of green Turmeric.

Mulching and Weed control

Apply mulching layers immediately after planting with tree leaves, purali, sugarcane trash or whatever available with the farmer. This may be up to about 5 cm height. Weeding operation may be done after about 30 days when mulch should be removed first.  Apply Mulch after weeding and application of fertilizes. Repeat operations at each fertilizer application.

Pests and Diseases Control  

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Turmeric is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

  • Downey Mildew: spraying Dithane M-45 at interval is recommended.
  • Green Jassids: spray Chloropyrofos/ Dichlorvos/Dimethoate/Phorate/Imidacloprid
  • Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray Malathion/Endosulfan/Chloropyrofos. Spread Phorate.
  • Rhizome scale:  Dip rhizomes in Quinalphos 0.1% both prior to storage and sowing.
  • White Fly: spray Malathion. Drench with Thimet.
  • Thrips: spray Imidaclorprid/Chloropyros/Dimethoate. Several sprays may be required. Use Azadrachtin oil.
  • Scale insects: Spraying of Parathion (0.03%) emulsion, Dimethoate 150 ml and 250 ml kerosene oil in 100 liter of water or Malathion@ 0.1 % or Carbonyl @ 0.05% plus oil 1%.
  • Caterpillar may be handpicked and removed.
  • Leaf miner: Spraying of Phosphomidon @ 1 ml or Monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml. per liter 2 or 3 times fortnightly.
  • Grubs are in the earth and they chew on the roots. Later on they transform into beetles and chew leaves. Imidaclorprid spray and drenching is indicated.
  • Rhizome rot: Precaution: Dip in M-45 solution both before storage and before sowing. After attack: drench with M-45 solution.
  • Fungal diseases, brown powdery on leaves. It is advised to remove such leaves. Spray Neem oil one teaspoon into approximately 10 liters of water.
  • Leaf blight makes leaves turn yellow. Even though the vigor of the plant may not be much affected, plant look becomes ungainly. Remove such leaves.
  • Gummosis: Scraping off the affected area and application of Bordeaux mixture or Copper Oxyfluoride.
  • Anthracnose: Dried twigs are pruned off first. This to be followed by two sprays of Carbendazim @1 grams/liter or copper oxychloride – 3 grams/liter fortnightly.
  • Spray of Zineb or Mancozeb may be regularly done weekly.
  • Leaf curl can be prevented by spray of Dimethoate.

Processing of Turmeric for marketing

Curing

Curing is the process of boiling the rhizomes in water till froth starts coming out of water. Thereafter rhizomes are dried in the sun.

Manual Methods:  the rhizomes are boiled in water in a big copper or iron or earthen pots with water kept to minimum.  After froth comes out and white fumes appear boiling is stopped.  At this stage rhizomes would be soft to touch.  Sun drying is then done.

Improved methods:  Larger perforated troughs of iron with handles are used to keep rhizomes. These troughs are then immersed in boiling water pans added with sodium bicarbonate. When boiling is complete the troughs are pulled out of water and dried in the sun by drying on bamboo mats or floor layered one above to about 5 cm height.   It may take more than 10 days for drying to be complete.

Polishing

Dried Turmeric has rather a dull color and has scales and root bits on the surface. Polishing is done to improve the appearance of Turmeric for marketing.

  • Manual Polishing:  Rub the dried Turmeric fingers wrapped in gunny bags by hand or feet on a hard surface.
  • Mechanical Polishing:  Here a drum mounted on a central axis with inside expanded mesh is used. Turmeric fingers are rotated in this drum and they scrub against each other and also against the sides of the drum as the drum is rolled. Drum can be hand rotated or power rotated.

Coloring: the polished Turmeric is immersed for some time in Turmeric suspension water filled in a drum.  Turmeric fingers are put to dry after a uniform coating of the suspension has been obtained.

Uses of Turmeric

Turmeric is used as condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies.

Medicinal Benefits

  • Turmeric is rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds. Traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine use turmeric for relief in arthritis pain and regulate menstruation. It has also been used to improve digestion and liver function.
  • Turmeric is recognized as an alternative therapy for heartburn, inflammation, and stomach ulcers.
  • If you eat curry, you’ve consumed Turmeric. It’s the ingredient that gives curry its spicy flavor and vibrant color.
  • Turmeric’s most active ingredient is called curcumin. It’s thought to be responsible for most of Turmeric’s health benefits.
  • Curcumin is a polyphenol antioxidant. It’s said to have potent antiviral, antibacterial, and anticancer capabilities.
  • Curcumin protects the gut from damage from NSAIDs and other noxious agents. It has a role in keeping the bacteria associated with ulcers in check, helps ulcers heal, and it works actively on killing cancer cells in the gut.

A note of caution:  Overall, there isn’t enough evidence to support the use of Turmeric for any health condition. More research is needed to determine its effectiveness in people.

Turmeric Risks

  • Turmeric is a natural blood thinner. Avoid Turmeric if one takes drugs that thin blood or in case of an upcoming surgery.
  • Turmeric may also lower blood sugar, lower blood pressure, and make gallbladder problems worse.
  • Taking Turmeric for a long period of time or in high doses may increase risk of indigestion, nausea, and diarrhea.
  • Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding shouldn’t use excessive amounts of Turmeric.

There’s associated risk of allergic reaction with Turmeric as with all natural remedies.

A better way to take Turmeric

Curcumin is not well absorbed in the body. Black pepper contains the bioactive compound piperine, which is an alkaloid like capsaicin. Addition of black pepper with turmeric boosts the absorption of curcumin.

Turmeric (curcumin) and black pepper (piperine) combination has shown to improve health due to their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and disease-fighting qualities.

Harvesting

Turmeric crop is from 6 to 8 months.  Sowing time is variety dependent. Plants are ready for harvesting when leaves of Turmeric turn yellowish and dry. Plough the land and then gather by hand picking the clumps. The clumps are then cleaned of mud and other materials.

Seed storage:  seed rhizomes are generally stored after heaping under a higher ground in shade and plastered with mixed cow dung.  Storage is also done in pits dug in earth and covered.

Acknowledgements:

  1. https://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/crop%20info/turmeric.htm
  2. https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/horticulture/spice-and-con…
  3. http://www.pantnagarbioplanttech.com/turmeric-crop.html
  4. https://www.agrifarming.in/turmeric-farming
Posted in Herbs Tagged with: , , ,

Potato Farming: How to ..

Posted on by nkp — No Comments ↓

Ways to Grow Potatoes Successfully

Introduction to Potato

Potato (Solanum Tuberosum) is an annual plant in the nightshade family (Solanaceae).  It is grown for its starchy edible tubers.

The potato is native to Peruvian-Bolivian Andes and is one of the world’s main food crops. Potatoes are thought to have been independently domesticated several times. Potatoes were largely cultivated in South America by the Incas as early as 1,800 years ago. Spaniards introduced Potatoes into Europe during the second half of the 16th century. By the end of the 17th century the plant was a major crop in Ireland, and by the end of the 18th century it was a major crop in continental Europe, particularly Germany, and in the west of England. It continued to spread, in both Western and Eastern hemispheres, during the first four decades of the 19th century.

Potato is an important food source. Any number of culinary ingredients exist from region to region. Potato is considered an essential crop in Europe. There has been rapid expansion in consumption and production of potato in southern and eastern Asia. China and India lead the world in overall productions.

Suitable Climate

Potatoes like cooler temperatures and low rainfall.   Sowing temperature of around 15 – 25 Centigrade and harvesting time temperature around 14 – 20 Centigrade is very conducive to potato growing. Potato is considered as a cool weather crop. Vegetative growth of potato is good under 24-degree Celsius of temperature and for tuber growth 20-degree Celsius of temperature is suitable.

Soil Requirements

A large variety of soils like loamy soil, sandy loam, slit loam and clay soil are all suitable for potato farming. Soil should be loose so that it can offer less resistance to the enlargement of tubers. Soil needs to be fertile and well drained. Acidic soil of pH of 4.8 to 5.4 is very suitable for potato cultivation.

Methods Of Growing Potatoes

Land Preparation

Well pulverized bed should be prepared by ploughing land once up to 20-25 cm deep. Take two or three harrowing after ploughing operation. Soil should leveled by planking operation for one to two times. Maintain sufficient moisture in soil before sowing. Two methods are widely used for planting, 1) Ridge and furrow method 2) Flat Bed method.

Sowing

Depending upon whether the farmer wishes early or late production, sowing would be done from late September to end of October.  This would provide the required temperature for sowing. For spring growing, January 2nd or 3rd week is indicated.

Spacing

General usage farmers may keep a distance of around 20 cm between tubers and a distance of 60 cm between ridges. This can be achieve by manual or mechanical means depending on choice and availability. The tuber distance can be reduced if size of same is smaller. Place the tuber around 5 to 8 cm deep. Keep the eye of the tuber pointing up.

Seed treatment

Ensure seed potato is from a reliable source, is healthy and disease free. Allow the tubers to have some sprouts growing. Dip in Gibberalic acid @ 1gm/10 liter water for increased production. Treat seed potatoes with Bavistin or Mancozeb solution for about ten minutes for disease avoidance.

Fertilizer

The soil should be got tested by a reliable soil test laboratory.  Depending on result, the total fertilizer to be applied is around 156 kg/acre of Urea, 150 kg/acre of Single Super Phosphate and around 50 kg of Murate of Potash suitably amended as per soil report.

Before sowing of tubers, farmers should give Farm Yard Manure. Apply half of nitrogen and full Phosphate and Potash at time of sowing. Apply the rest half of nitrogen about a month after sowing.

Earthing up

Earth up around the plants as the tuber plants begin to grow up. The soil is drawn up around base of plant for better development of tubers.

Spray 13:0:45 @ 2kg per acre, fungicide, Humic acid, DAP in vegetative state.

Weed control

A well prepared land should normally have very less incidence of weeds. Hand weeding may be sufficient. Apply weedicides after sowing and before sprouts emerge – app 2 liters per acre in case of necessity. Farmers may use mulching which will minimize weed infestation and would also conserve moisture. Paddy straws are good for mulching. Remove this mulch after 25 – 30 days.

How to Irrigate

Irrigate the beds lightly; avoid flood irrigation. Farmers should irrigate after checking moisture in the soil beds. Stop irrigating before harvesting time.

Control Of Pests And Diseases

  1. Aphids: frequent checking of foliage for infestation. Use Imidi @ 5 ml/15 liter.
  2. Cut Worms: feed at night, difficult to control. Use chlorpyriphos 20%EC @ 2 ml/liter. Apply Phorate granules also.
  3. Potato Tuber Moth: makes tunnel in potato and feeds on flesh. Chosehealthy and disease free seed potatoes as a preventive measure. Spray carbaryl @1gm per liter of water.
  4. Early Blight: spray M45 or Copper oxychloride at 3gm per liter of water – repeat as necessary.
  5. Common Scab: spreads rapidly in moist conditions. Prevention is best cure. Treat seeds with Emisan/ M45/Bavistin/Tilt before sowing.
  6. Bacterial Soft Rot: infected tubers show soft, reddish spots. Prevention is best cure.

Harvesting Your Potatoes

Undertake harvesting when majority of leaves have turned yellow brown and fallen to ground. Cut foliage at base. Harvest Potatoes after two weeks. Spread the fresh potatoes on ground and allow them to dry in shade for 10 to 15 days for curing of skin.

We always seek views of our readers. Did you find it useful ? Would you like to give more insight into the subject. Comments welcome.

Look at image below. How many mistakes have been made by grower?

  1. www.Apnikheti.com
  2.  www.agrifarming.in
  3. www.indiaagronet.com
Posted in vegetables Tagged with: , ,

Fertilization calculations using drip irrigation

Posted on by nkp — 6 Comments ↓

 

In Fertigation, fertilization calculations are done in PPM (parts per million) of various elements used as fertilizers.   Fertilizer calculations also involve discharge rates of drip water and dilution rate of fertilizer injectors.  Also it involves knowledge, self-acquired or from reliable sources, on the suitable PPM rates for particular crops.

I would like to first go into what is Fertigation, why Fertigation and how of Fertigation.  Then I bring out a formula for calculating the amount of fertilizer for desired PPM in the nutrient solution.  This formula is not the panacea for all things; however it enables the farmer for his calculations to a great degree.

What is Fertigation?  Two things have to be present for this term to be used.  One the farmer is using the drip technology to irrigate his crop(s). And, two, the farmer is using the drip lines to provide fertilizers to his crops.

The method of fertilizing through drip lines is called Fertigation.

a recap of drip irrigation

Before we proceed to Why and How of Fertigation, my previous article Fertigation would be a good read.

  • Application of water at low pressure
  • Drop by drop over a long time
  • prevents evaporation and spreading of water,
  • directed to the roots of plant,
  • economy of water,
  • economy of fertilizers,
  • used in undulated or difficult terrain,
  • efficient use of scare water yielding water saving, improved quality of crop,

When we use drip irrigation to provide fertilizers and soil insecticides through drip, as mentioned before as FERTIGATION, we get additional advantages.

Advantages of Fertigation

  • The Fertigation allows applying the nutrients exactly and uniformly only to the wetted root volume, where the active roots are concentrated.
  • Increases the efficiency and efficacy of the fertilizer.
  • Results in reducing the amount of fertilizer required.
  • Reduces not only production costs but also lessens groundwater pollution caused by the fertilizer leaching.
  • Fertigation allows planning and delivery of only the required amounts of the applied nutrients to the crop throughout the growing season.
  • Crop foliage can be kept dry avoiding leaf burn and delaying the development of plant pathogens.

The optimal curve of consumption of nutrients defines the minimal application rate of a certain nutrient that is required to maintain a constant nutrient concentration in the soil solution.

Fertilizer optimum dose

fertilizer vs yield

In comparison to all other irrigation methods, Fertigation is not optional.

That answers the WHY part of this blog.

The HOW part of blog is well answered in my article on Fertigation. But let us discuss it some more here.

Fertilizers solubility

Fertigation requires that fertilizer dissolves completely in irrigation water. Some highly soluble fertilizers appropriate for use in Fertigation are: Ammonium Nitrate, Potassium Chloride, Potassium Nitrate, Urea, Ammonium Monophosphate and Potassium Monophosphate.

The solubility of fertilizers also depends on the temperature. In summers higher density solutions may be made but in winters leaner solutions would need to be made.

Solubility of fertilizers gm./liter indicative figures only
Fertilizer / Temperature (C˚)1020
Potassium nitrate170209
Ammonium nitrate15101920
Ammonium sulfate730750
Calcium nitrate11301290
Magnesium Nitrate690710
MAP (Mono Ammonium Phosphate)295374
MKP (Mono Potassium Phosphate)180230
Potassium chloride238255
Potassium sulfate90111
Urea8501060
solubility at two temperatures

Some factors to decide on the injector equipment required for regulating Fertigation in drips are:

  • quantity of fertilizer to be applied
  • duration of applications
  • proportion of fertilizers
  • starting and finishing time

Fertilizer recommendations are generally given in parts per million (ppm) of N or P or K or a combo in the final solution being applied to the crop.

Explanation

Most growers use injectors of one type or other for applying fertilizers to greenhouse crops. Injectors “inject” a specific amount of concentrated fertilizer solution (stock solution) per increment of irrigation water that passes through the injector. An important attribute of each fertilizer injector is the injector ratio, which is defined as volumetric ratio of stock solution to dilute fertilizer solution.

Injector ratio – the volumetric ratio of stock solution to dilute fertilizer solution.

Popular injector types:

  1. Pressure differential (by-pass tank)
  2. Vacuum injection (Venturi) – very popular
  3. Pump injection – very precise

Determination of particular fertilizer quantity for required PPM at the root zone.

Step one in any Fertigation program is to first have a soil and water analysis done for determining the EC, pH and quantities that may be present of minerals in your water and soil.

Second step is to determine the nutrient rates your crop requires. You can use recommendations from the literature, or your own experience. If nutrient requirements are provided in units other than ppm or mg/l, it is recommended to convert the values to ppm (1ppm = 1 mg/l).

Deduct the soil water test results from the nutrient requirements of the crop for each required nutrient. For example, if magnesium requirement is 60 ppm and the source water contains 40 ppm, and then 60-40=20 ppm of magnesium has to be added to each liter of nutrient solution.

Fertilizer Selection

Farmer needs to go through all Fertilizers available with him or in nearby store. And then select ones which contain all nutrients needed to be added. Begin with the fertilizer that contains a unique nutrient that other fertilizers do not contain. For example, if the only available source of calcium you have is calcium nitrate, start the calculation with this fertilizer.

Now we come to nuclear question. By now farmers has decided on what should be fertilizer ppm in the drip solution delivered to his plants. How do we measure the amount of fertilizer(s) for making the stock solution which would provide desired PPM at delivery point? Let us continue.

What are those numbers on the bag

Check the numbers of your fertilizers.  N P K. the fertilizers bag would be printed as 20-20-20 or 20-10-10 or even 52-34-0 and 0-0-62.  The first, second and third numbers indicate the percentages of elemental Nitrogen, Phosphorus in the oxide form (P2O5) and Potassium in the oxide form (K2O), respectively.

Calculate Fertilizer Amounts

The formula allows you to calculate the amount of fertilizer needed to mix stock solutions. This formula can be used with any injector ratio, any desired concentration of diluted fertilizer solution and for all common units of measurement.

ppm calculation

ppm calculations

Note:

  1. Dilution factor is the reverse of injector ratio i.e. if injector ratio is 1:100, the dilution ratio is 100.
  2. K is a conversion constant depending on the units used.
  3. K = 75 if units are ounces per gallon
  4. K = 1200 if units are pounds per gallon and
  5. K = 10 if units are grams per liter.

Example

Farmer has an injector with a 1:200 ratio and a fertilizer with an analysis of 20-20-20. He wants to apply 150-ppm nitrogen as a constant feed. How many ounces of fertilizer would he have to weigh out to make 1 gallon of stock solution?

1. Given

  • Desired concentration = 150 ppm
  • Injector ratio = 1:200; dilution factor = 200
  • Fertilizer analysis = 20-20-20 (20-percent nitrogen)
  • Ounces of fertilizer to make 1 gal. of stock solution = X (unknown)
  • Units: ounces per gallon. Use 75 as the conversion constant K.

2. Perform calculation:

X = (150-ppm nitrogen x 200) / (20-percent nitrogen X 75) =30,000 / 1500 = 20 oz. per gal.

3. Answer:

Add 20 oz. of 20-20-20 to a stock solution bucket and fill to the 1-gal.  Farmer can have as many gallons of stock solutions and feed it through his injector in the drip line till his crop is served. He will always have the same 150 PPM of N.

Readers may like to experiment to get result in gms per liter of stock solution using the same formula with K = 10.

Additional information

MKP 0-52-34 contains 52% P2O5 and 34% K2O. MAP 11-52-0 contains 11% N and 52% P2O5. To calculate the rate of the fertilizer required to apply certain concentrations of P and K, you should first convert %P2O5 and % K2O to elemental P and K by multiplying by 0.4364 and 0.8302 respectively. N is 1.

Nitrogen may be applied in two different forms – nitrate (NO3–) and ammonium (NH4+). The ratio between these two forms is of a great importance in nutrient solutions. Therefore, you may want to break down the nitrogen calculation to these two forms. MAP (mono ammonium phosphate) contains 12% N-NH4, while potassium nitrate contains 13% N-NO3.

This means the nitrogen in MAP is in its ammonium form, while in potassium nitrate it is in the nitrate form. Some fertilizers may contain both forms.

Often, the pH of the nutrient solution has to be lowered. This is done by adding acid to the nutrient solution.

Please do share if you know or practice any other formula for calculations.

Posted in Fertilizers&Fertigation Tagged with: ,

PESTICIDES LABELLING METHODS and THEIR QUANTITY CALCULATIONS

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Pesticides labelling is done by manufacturers in a manner to convey information to the users about their specific products. Based on labeling,  quantity calculations for selected pesticide are carried out.

Pesticide is an umbrella term for chemical formulations, which include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, wood preservatives, gardening and household disinfectants.  Each chemical is meant to eliminate or weaken a particular class of pests and vectors which may affect our agriculture, horticulture, animals and household.

Readers of this article may also like to also go through my earlier article Pesticides.  This article describes types of pesticides and the way they work to get rid of intended insects, pests etc.

This article is in two parts: 

  1. What do the various numbers and symbols in the Label mean.
  2. How to carry out quantity calculations of pesticide for particular requirement.

This article does not deal with what pesticide needs to be used for a particular infestation. I hope to cover same in my next post.

Part One:   What do the various numbers and symbols in the Label mean:

Commonly the pesticides labelling on the package would have the following information printed on it:

  1. Active Ingredient (a.i.) : this would indicate the particular chemical used.
  2. Formulation: would specify type of formulation e.g. whether in dry form or liquid form. Then there are further subdivisions as shown below. The product could be a mix of two or more chemicals also.
  3. Concentration of formulation: would be given as quantity of a.i. in a given volume.
  4. Hazard: Class I a = extremely hazardous; Class I b = highly hazardous; Class II = moderately hazardous; Class III = slightly hazardous and Class IV = unlikely to present any acute hazard in normal use.
  5. Product Name
  6. Company name

Common Abbreviations for types of formulations:

A = Aerosol

AF = Aqueous flowable

B = Bait

C = Concentrate

D = Dust

DF = Dry flowables (see WDG)

E = Emulsifiable concentrate

EC = Emulsifiable concentrate

F = Flowable

G = Granules

GL = Gel

L = Liquid

LC = Liquid concentrate

S = Solution

SP = Soluble powder (or soluble packet; see WSP)

 

M = Microencapsulated

P = Pellets

PS = Pellets

RTU = Ready-to-use

ULV = Ultra-low volume

W = Wettable powder

WDG = Water-dispersible granules (see DF)

WP = Wettable powder

WS = Water soluble

WSB = Water-soluble bag

WSC = Water-soluble concentrate

WSL = Water-soluble liquid

WSP = Water-soluble powder

 

Manufacturers provide the active ingredients in various forms of formulation so as to provide a lot of flexibility to users as per their need and convenience.

How to decide on type of ingredient and its specific formulation :

  1. Suitability of the pesticide ingredient for the type of pests. The label would provide this information.
  2. Is the life stage of the insect or weed within the effective range of the product? Some insecticides may target specific insect life stages (for example, grubs or the immature stage of a beetle), while herbicides may target specific plant growth stages.
  3. Suitability and ease of using the particular formulation of pesticide.
  4. Restrictions on application of the pesticide. For example, Pesticides for food crops need to be applied before a certain number of days before harvest, as specified by the label. Often indoor foggers require vacating the building for a specific amount of time. Must read the label thoroughly.
  5. Availability of application equipment and personal protective equipment as listed on the label. Ready-to-use products may be considered also which eliminate the measuring and mixing requirements of concentrated products. These products also eliminate need for personal protective equipment or other mixing and application equipment.
  6. Whether products required for smaller area, for larger area or protected Purchase only the needed amount for particular period. Reduces storage needs. Pesticides stored over longer time periods tend to lose effectiveness.
  7. Decide whether pesticides has to offer a short period of control or long-term protection depending best for your situation.

Representative illustration

Below is given specs as provided by manufacturer for Imidacloprid in three formulations type – G granules, F flowable and WSP water soluble powder and respective a.i. present. The type and strength are indicated.

Imida E-Pro 1%imidacloprid 1%G81959-19124A
Registered against: aphids, beetles (larvae), black vine weevil, caterpillars, fungus gnats (larvae), lace bugs, leafhoppers, leafminers, mealybugs, scale, thrips (suppression), weevils (root), whiteflies
For use on ornamentals in greenhouses, nurseries, and interior plantscapes, also can be applied to grassy areas in nurseries for certain insect control. Product is systemic and is applied to the soil media. Do not apply product to soils that are water logged or saturated. See label for plant list, rates, and specific instructions.
*Imida E-Pro 2Fimidacloprid 21.4%F81959-22124A
Registered against: aphids, beetles (larvae), black vine weevil, caterpillars, fungus gnats (larvae), lace bugs, leafhoppers, leafminers, mealybugs, sawflies (larvae), scale, thrips (suppression), weevils (root), whiteflies
For use on ornamentals in greenhouses, nurseries, and interior plantscapes, also can be applied to grassy areas in nurseries for certain insect control. ………..
*Imida E-Pro 60WSPimidacloprid 60% WSP81959-24124A
Registered against: aphids, beetles (larvae), black vine weevil, caterpillars, fungus gnats (larvae), lace bugs, leafhoppers, leafminers, mealybugs, sawflies (larvae), scale, thrips (suppression), weevils (root), whiteflies
For use on ornamentals in greenhouses, nurseries, and interior plantscapes, also can be applied to grassy areas in nurseries for certain insect control. ……..

Part Two: How to carry out quantity calculations of pesticide.

The manufacturers of any particular pesticide formulation also provide other information, besides those covered in Part One, such as :

  1. Purpose i.e. against which pest(s) it is meant to be used.
  2. Rate of application.
  3. Compatibility with other pesticides and/or fertilizer.
  4. Conditions in which to be used. Whether to be used before flowering or not.
  5. Protective gear to be used.

Once farmer user  has decided on a particular pesticide based on above, the question arises as to the amount to be used for his particular requirement.

Typically there are four ways we can carry out quantity calculations for the correct amount of pesticides.

  1. Amount of active ingredient (pure chemical) needed per hectare or acre. Recommendation might be to use 2 kg active ingredient (a.i.) of X pesticide per hectare i.e. 2 kgs. of pure (100%) X.
  2. Amount of actual formulation needed per hectare or acre. Recommendation is for 4 liters of Y 50% EC per hectare or another one for 2.5 lbs. of Y 80% WP per acre. Here two calculations are required. One how much formulation needed. Two how much water is required to cover entire area.
  3. Amount of actual formulation needed per liter or gallon of water. Recommended to use 5 cc of Z 50% EC per liter of water or 2 tablespoons of Z 80% WP per gallon of water.
  4. Percentage concentration of formulation in the spray water. Recommended concentration of pesticide in the spray water is given in terms of percent by weight or volume rather than cc/ liter or tablespoons/gallon.

Consider use 1 and 2 type of method of calculation for large plots. Calibration may need to be done for the spray equipment for accurate dosage of pesticide to be disbursed,

Use is made of 3 and 4 type of method of calculation for general type suited to smaller plots or for lesser accuracy,

How to Calculate Formulae.

Here I am using X, Y, Z in place of actual names of pesticides for simplicity.

Calculation for active ingredient basis

  1. For solid formulations (WP’s, EC’s, G’s)

Kg/ha or lbs/acre actual formulation = (amount of a.i. recommended (kg/ha,

lbs/acre))  /  (%a.i. in formulation)

Example: A recommendation for aphids calls for using X at 2 kg active ingredient/hectare. How much X 40% WP would be needed per hectare?

Solution:  Required amount    =       2 kg / 40%  =  5 kg/ha

         2.  For liquid formulations (EC’s)

Liters/ha  = (kg/ha of a.i. recommended)  /  (% a.i. EC)               OR

Liters/ha of EC needed =  (kg/ha of recommemded a.i.  x 1000) /  (gms of a.i. per

liter of EC)

Example: How much Y 20% EC would be needed per hectare if a recommendation for mites calls for 0.2 kg a.i. Y per hectare?

Solution:           Liters of 20% EC needed = 0.2 kg / 20%  =  1 liter

 

Calculation for actual formulation needed, given dosage per hectare or acre.

Hectare basis

Amt needed = (amt of formulation needed/ha ) x (area sq.m.) / (10000)

Acre basis

Amt needed  =  (amt of formulation / acre) X (area sq. ft)  /  (44000)

Example: recommend applying Z 2.5% strength granules broadcast at 120 kg/ha for controlling A insects in maize. If the  field measures 40 x 40 meters, how much Z will be needed?

Solution:  Amt needed =  120 x 1600 sq.m. /10000 = 19.2 kg

Percentage strength spray recommendation.

Determine first whether the spray’s percentage strengths to be calculated in terms of active ingredient or in terms of actual formulation.

Let us clarify above statement.  A recommendation may be for 2% strength spray in terms of pure X for controlling household fleas; another recommendation may be for using a 0.1% strength spray of Y 50% EC for controlling mites.

(It is advisable to convert all units to metric units where calculations are simpler.)

  1. For wettable powders

When using WP’s, a percentage strength spray is based on weight of pesticide to weight of water. Since 1 liter of water weighs 1 kg, we can use these formulas:

Active ingredient basis

Gms of WP/liter of water = (% strength desired x 1000 ) /  (% a.i. in WP)

Example: How many grams of X 40% WP to be added per liter of water to make up a 2% strength spray (active ingredient basis).

Solution:    Gms of 40%WP/liter = (2% x 1000)  /  (40%) = 50 g

Actual product basis

Grams of wettable powder needed per liter of water = (% strength spray desired x 1000)

Example: How much Y SP 95 is needed to make up a 0.15% strength spray (actual product basis).

Solution:   Grams of Y SP 95 = (0.15% x 1000)  =  (0.0015 x 1000) = 1.5 g per liter of water

       2.For liquids (EC’s)

Active ingredient basis

Cc(ml) of EC / liter water = (%strength spray desired x 1000) / (% a.i. in EC)

Example: How much X 57% EC should be added per liter of water to make up a 2% strength spray (active ingredient basis).

Solution:  Cc(ml) Malathion 57% EC per liter = (2% x 1000)  /  (57% )= 20 / 57 = 35 cc (ml)

 

Note for converting to metric units:

1 liter = 1000 cc (or Ml); 1 liter of water weights 1 kg (1000 g); 1 U.S. gallon = 3.78 liters; 1 lb. = 0.454 kg = 454 g; 1 kg = 2.2 lbs.

 

Further Reading:

http://www.nzdl.org/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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