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WAYS TO SUCCEED IN LIME and LEMON FARMING

Posted on August 20, 2019 by

INTRODUCTION

A Lemon Tree

The Lemon (Citrus limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to South Asia, primarily north eastern India. Lime and Lemon belong to the same family, but the smaller Lime is actually a predecessor of the Lemon. Limes grow well in the tropics unlike Lemons.

Lemons, scientifically known as Citrus limon, originate from Limes, Citrus aurantifolia. They were originally developed as a two-step hybrid, first between the Lime and the citron in India and Pakistan, and the second (Lime with pummelo) in the Middle East. They were introduced to Europe by Arabs in Moorish Spain in the year 400, before being introduced to Northern Africa. In 1493, Lemons were brought to the Americas by Christopher Columbus, and have been grown in Florida since the 16th century.

In 1747, James Lind’s experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding Lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known as an important dietary ingredient.

Lemons are grown only to a limited extent in homestead gardens. Limes are available throughout the year in some part or the other in our country. They are used as fresh fruit or for the preparation of pickles and beverages. They are rich in vitamin C, minerals and salts.

Though available year round, Limes are in the peak of their season from May to October, while Lemons peak May to August.

Suitable Climate For Lemon Growing.

Lemon can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. However, too hot or too cold weather is counterproductive to fruit size and flowering. Areas with dry climate and low rainfall are best suited for growing Limes. Lemons can be grown in heavy rainfall humid regions. High humidity favors the spread of many diseases. Frost is highly injurious. Hot wind during summer results in desiccation and drop of flowers and young fruits. Limes are a tropical fruit.

Soil Requirements

Lime and Lemon may be planted in medium black, loamy or alluvial soils having perfect drainage and devoid of calcium carbonate layer. Lemon can grow in all sorts of soils, but well drained sandy loam and clay-loam soils rich in humus with fairly good Potash content are best for its cultivation. The soil should be well aerated. Heavy soil should be avoided. Soils with high organic matter are preferred; FYM (Farm Yard Manure) or compost should be incorporated during land preparation. Lay out should ensure that Soil has good internal drainage.

Home hobby enthusiasts would do well to make a potting mixture of equal parts of compost, perlite and peat moss or coir. Another potting mixture may be suggested to contain of 5 parts of wood chips, one part of peat moss and one part of perlite/vermiculite.

The pH level for citrus trees between 5.5 and 7.5, are good; however they can tolerate with reduced productivity pH range of 4–9.

Propogation

Acid Lime can be propagated by seed, budding or air layer. Since it is highly polyembryonic, seedlings are true to type and resistant to diseases. Propagation by seedling is recommended. Budded plants on Jambheri (also called rough Lemon) or Gajanimma are used for planting Lemons.

Planting

Land is prepared by ploughing 3 or 4 times (or as required). The earth should not have any lumps or boulders. It should be well aerated. Pits then are dug which could be from 40x40x40 to 60x60x60 depending on the variety. The pits are filled up with Farm Yard Manure (FYM). The top soil is applied with urea and superphosphate and mixed well. Lemons need space for good air circulation; otherwise diseases may manifest.

One year old seedlings are planted into these pits. Avoid periods of heavy rains while planting. Light rains conditions are good for planting. It could be late June to early July or late September to early October.

Fertilization

Fertilizer application actually depends upon the soil of the farmer. It is recommended to have the soil and water analyzed before deciding on the actual quantity of fertilizers. As a normal practice the following fertilizers are indicated for Lemon farming.

Up to age 5 of the plant, we may give 20 kg Farm Yard Manure, 100 g urea and 1 kg Superphosphate per plant in two equal split doses in June and December every year. Fifth year onwards 40 kg FYM, 400 g N + 200 g P + 400 g K per plant in two split doses in June-July and September-October be applied. In addition, 150 g N is applied per plant 15 days after fruit set.

Micronutrients like magnesium, zinc, copper, iron, etc. may also need to be given. This should be done after careful analysis of the leaves of the tree or plant.

Trees in production stages take certain quantities of nutrients from the earth. It is required that the same are replenished to keep up the production. Leaf analysis and soil analysis combined provide valuable advice and prevents unnecessary and overdose of nutrients.
Some growers may like to give the fertilizers in three parts.

Manures and fertilizers are applied in a circular trench 20-30 cm deep about a meter wide around the periphery of the tree. Manures are thoroughly mixed with soil, and the tree irrigated profusely.

Additional Spray during production

NPK 19:19:19 plus Manganese @ 1% after 45 days of planting to invigorate growth.
Spray of zinc Sulphate @ 0.5% weekly or so after about 35 days of planting.
Farmers know that nutrigation is a constant routine for the entire life cycle of the trees. Farmers need to make a chart for this purpose. In addition to soil, nutrition would be required to be given through foliar sprays, as for example in winter’s foliar spray of phosphorous needs to be given.

Companion Plants

Marigolds, basil, calendula, carrots, peppers, onions, beans and others are some companion plants which may be grown along with Lemon/Lime trees. Plant the same in a circular area around the tree trunk for best protection.

Irrigation

Careful irrigation practices are to be put in place for watering these trees. Water needs to be sufficient but over watering is to be avoided.

Production

The trees start production from 2^nd or 3^rd year but maturity is in the 7^th or 8^th year. It takes 40-60 days from flowering for a Lemon to reach full ripeness, depending on temperature and the variety.

Weed control in Lemon Farming

Weed control needs to be an important cultural operation. Weeding, thinning and earthing up are the important intercultural operations of Lemon farming.
Shallow rooted inter-row cultivation and hand weeding may be used to minimize weeds in the inter row zone.
Spraying of weedicide may also be done. It is important to keep the spray away from the trees itself.

Pests and Diseases and Control

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Lemon is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

Downey Mildew: spraying Dithane M-45 at interval is recommended.
Green Jassids: spray chloropyrofos/ dichlorvos/dimethoate/phorate/imidacloprid
Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray endosulfan/chloropyrofos. Spread phorate.
White Fly: spray Malathion. Drench with thimet.
Thrips: spray imidaclorprid/chloropyrofos/dimethoate. Several sprays may be required.
Scale insects: Spraying of parathion (0.03%) emulsion, dimethoate 150 ml and 250 ml kerosene oil in 100 liter of water or malathion@ 0.1 % or carbonyl @ 0.05% plus oil 1%.
Caterpillar may be handpicked and removed.
Leaf miner: Spraying of chloropyrofos @ 3ml or phosphomidon @ 1 ml or monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml. per liter 2 or 3 times fortnightly.
Grubs are in the earth and they chew on the roots. Later on they transform into beetles and chew leaves. Imidaclorprid spray and drenching is indicated.

Fungal diseases, brown powdery on leaves. It is advised to remove such leaves. Spray neem oil one teaspoon into approximately 10 liters of water.
Leaf blight makes leaves turn yellow. Even though the vigor of the plant may not be much affected, plant look becomes ungainly. Remove such leaves.
Gummosis: Scraping off the affected area and application of Bordeaux mixture or copper oxyfluoride.
Anthracnose: Dried twigs are pruned off first. This to be followed by two sprays of carbendazim @1 grams/liter or copper oxychloride – 3 grams/liter fortnightly.
Spray of Zineb or Mancozeb may be regularly done weekly. Leaf curl can be prevented by spray of dimethoate.

Nutritional value

Lemons and Limes share a similar nutritional profile, as we detail in the table below. These nutrients reflect what is present in a whole Lemon or Lime, not in the juice.

	1 Lemon, 84 g		1 Lime, 67 g
Macronutrients
Calories	24.4	20.1
Protein	0.92 g	0.47 g
Fat	0.25 g	0.13 g
Carbohydrates (total)	7.83 g	7.06 g
Sugars	2.1 g	1.13 g
Fiber	2.35 g	1.88 g
Vitamins and minerals
Calcium	21.8 mg	22.1 mg
Potassium	116 mg	68.3 mg
Vitamin C	44.5 mg	19.5 mg
Folate	9.24 mcg	5.36 mcg

The nutritional benefits of Lemons and Limes are the same. Although Lemons have slightly more of some vitamins and minerals, the difference is too small to have any effect.

When to Harvest a Lemon

Lemons are ready to pick as soon as they are yellow or yellow green in appearance and firm. The fruit will be 2 to 3 inches in size. It’s better to wait until they are the right size and not worry so much about color than to wait for them to be completely yellow. Lemons that are ready to be picked also have a slightly glossy appearance. Lemon picking is better too early than too late.

Limes are harvested prior to ripening, while the lime is still green. Limes are actually yellow once fully ripe but will be bitter and not taste very good when harvested yellow. To determine whether a green lime is ripe enough for harvesting, gently twist one from the stem of the lime tree and cut it open. Harvest time is appropriate if the fruit is juicy inside.

Uses

They are used as fresh fruit or for the preparation of pickles and beverages. They are rich in vitamin C, minerals and salts.

Lemon and Lime rinds are popular in cooking.

Premade or fresh squeezed juice from the fruit may be mixed with many foods and drinks. These impart sour flavors and are liked by many persons for consumption.

The fruits’ rinds. juice and peel are used in cooking for their unique bitter flavors. Examples would be of for flavoring sauces, marinades, and salad dressings.

Also, Lemon and thyme is a good combination for marinating chicken and fish. Lime works well with garlic, as well as with chili powder for marinating meats.

Lemons and Limes are good additions to many hot or cold drinks. For example, a person can add chunks of Lemon or Lime to water to make citrus water, or they can use Lemon or Lime to flavor teas.

Due to their high acidity, these citrus fruits are also effective at killing bacteria. Because of this, a range of citrus-based cleaning products are available, from bleaches to surface cleaners.

Also, some studies have shown that the essential oil of Lemon and other citrus fruits can enhance mental state through inhalation and aromatherapy, exert antimicrobial properties, and reduce skin inflammation through the topical application of the peel.

Risks

Consuming Lemons or Limes in moderate amounts is generally safe. However, the fruits can cause a stinging pain when in contact with open wounds, such as a cut lip or a mouth ulcer.

Their high acidity also means that they may worsen heartburn or digestive issues in people with gastro esophageal reflux disease.

In large amounts, citric fruits can erode tooth enamel and cause cavities over time.

When using cleaning products that contain citrus or other irritating chemicals, use gloves and avoid contact with the skin.

Acknowledgements:

Author himself is a small farmer and has collected all information some from his personal experience and some from other sources.

Posted in Fruits Tagged with: Lemon, lemon farming, Lime, lime and lemon

Want to Improve Production in Rice Farming

Posted on July 28, 2019 by

nkp — 6 Comments ↓

Introduction

Rice is believed to have been cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 Before Common Era (BCE). By 6500 BCE it seems to have reached Greece, Cyprus and India. By 3000 BCE it reached British Isles and a millennium later China. (Source: Wikipedia)

Rice is a staple cereal for a large population worldwide especially in India, China, Japan, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand etc. It is difficult to believe of a large number of human sustenance without Rice. China is the leading producer of Rice followed by India.

Rice or Paddy cultivation is labor intensive and needs a lot of water. Therefore it is most suitable and indeed adapted by regions where labor is cheaper and water availability is in plenty. However, Rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems.

In the West, parts of America and certain regions of Europe, such as Italy and Spain, have the climate suitable for Rice.

It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production (Rice, 741.5 million tonnes in 2014), after Sugarcane (1.9 billion tonnes) and Maize (1.0 billion tonnes). Rice is an important source of carbohydrates, protein, nutrients and fiber and providing more than one-fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans.

This from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice

First used in English in the middle of the 13th century, the word “Rice” derives from the Old French ris, which comes from the Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which derives from the Greek ὄρυζα (oruza). The Greek word is the source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, German Reis, Lithuanian ryžiai, Serbo-Croatian riža, Polish ryż, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez, Spanish arroz).

The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word (arisi), or rather Old Tamil arici. However, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. Mayrhofer suggests that the immediate source of the Greek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of the types *vrīz- or *vrinj- (Source of the modern Persian word Berenj), but these are ultimately traced back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrīhí-). P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar assumed that the Sanskrit vrīhí- is derived from the Tamil arici, while Ferdinand Kittel derived it from the Dravidian root variki.

Description of Rice

Rice is husked out of paddy. So I could have named this blog as on Paddy growing. Paddy is an annual grass. It has round culms, flat leaves and terminal panicles. Rice is the seed of a grass variety called Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. Paddy plant can grow up to 6 feet tall. It has a round jointed stem with leaves being long and pointed. The edible seeds which are sold commercially as ‘Rice’ grow on the top in the form of separate stalks. This is called paddy as the seeds are covered with a brown colored husk. The paddy is then harvested and dehusked resulting in production of Rice. Rice fields are also called as paddy fields.

tillering start in rice field

Classification of RICE

Rice is named differently in different places. Whatever the names, classification methods for Rice varieties follow same standards:

Growing season – winter grown or summer grown.
Protein content. High, Medium or Low.
The quality of the Rice protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of Rice for a particular use.
Grain color – red, white or amber. Phenolic compounds present in the bran layer impart color to Rice grains.

Top RICE producers in 2014

Country	millions of tonnes
European Union	157.3
China	126.2
India	95.8
Russia	59.7
United States	55.1
France	39.0
Canada	29.3
Germany	27.8
Pakistan	26.0
Australia	25.3
Ukraine	24.1
World	720
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization

Suitable climate for RICE growing

Rice plant prefer moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are not favorable for the formation of bulbs. Winter Rice lies dormant during winter and grows rapidly in spring. Too cold conditions damage the crop. Spring Rice is sown just as spring starts and harvested in summer. Winter Rice makes for fine flour.

Due to the peculiarity of the weather required, Rice sometimes can be grown all year round in certain regions. Otherwise there is one season for Rice growing when there is high rainfall, bright long days and temperatures not very high. In India sowing time is June-July and harvesting during November-December. Rice is also cultivated during sowing period of November to February and harvested during March to June. However as said before different regions would have different sowing and harvesting periods depending on local rain and temperature and sunlight available. Farmers may please check with their local agriculture authorities.

Land Preparation

No special attribute of soil is required for Rice plantation, but it grows best in well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. Plantation can be done in almost any type of soil provided the region has high rainfall, humidity and temperature with long bright days. Rice adapts both to acidic and alkaline soils.

The Rice roots penetrate earth at shallow depths maybe around 6-7 cm. Land needs to be well pulverized. For this land maybe first irrigated and then ploughed two or three times. The seed and initial fertilizers (and if required pesticides and fungicides, depending on the soil) are then planted together. Thereafter one ploughing and one leveling are done so that there are no water drainage problems. This also eliminates any other type of vegetation in the field.

Rice requires huge amounts of water. It is estimated that for every one kilogram of Rice, farmer needs to put in about 1500 liters of water.

also see in this site

Sowing Methods

recently transplanted rice

Method one: Transplanting

The first step in this method is to prepare seedlings in raised nursery beds.

While the seedlings are coming up, prepared land is flooded and empties two or three times. This will remove any weeds from the field. It also enhances water retention capacity of the field. All the Potash, Phosphate and half of Nitrogen is applied in the beginning.

The seedlings can be planted in the field, from where water has been emptied, in two ways. The first is random method where seedlings would be planted without a definite spacing in between plants. The second method is planting in rows according to defined distance and spacing. The distance and spacing depends on the variety of Rice, season and soil fertility. For example Rice variety growing too tall height would require greater spacing compared to medium or small height. Machine Trans planters facilitate such planting. With row plantations weeding and fertilization become easily controlled.

After planting water may be kept around 1-2 cm for a few days. As the plants lengthen, increase water level to 5-10 cm and remain there. The field is to be drained about 7 to 10 days prior to harvesting.

Method two: Direct seeding

There are three methods of direct seeding:

Broadcasting
Drilling
Dibbling

Broadcasting

Farmer may need to plough the land more than one time to get good tilth and well pulverized land. All of Phosphorous and Potash and half of Nitrogen should be mixed in the soil beforehand.

It is estimated that per hectare, one would require around 70 to 100 kgs of Rice seeds. Broadcasting is done uniformly or in shallow furrows made in the in the field with the help of a furrower.

Drilling

In this method machine, with or without power, punches holes in the field and seeds are dropped in such holes. The land is leveled after seeding.

Dibbling

Practiced more in hill plantations on mountain slopes or wherever plowing and harrowing is difficult. A pole is used at the end of which is a scoop. A person would use this to dig holes and drop the seed and cover the soil.

Let us compare the two methods:

Direct seeding by whichever method requires less labor and less cost. In fact plants would mature around a week earlier than if transplanted.
Transplanting allows field to be weed free and also retains moisture for Rice growing.
In direct seeding seeds can be harmed by insects, birds, rodents etc. weeds and Rice compete with each other for growth.
Direct seeding requires more seeds per hectare than the Transplanting method.

Manures and Fertilizers

Fertilizer application actually depends upon the soil of the farmer. It is recommended to have the soil and water analyzed before deciding on the actual quantity of fertilizers. As a normal practice the following fertilizers are indicated for Rice farming.

Farm Yard Manure – Mixing of around 2 to 2.5 tonnes of FYM per hectares is sufficient. Apart from FYM, it is also recommended to give following fertilizers.

Nitrogen (N) @80 – 120 kg/ha, Phosphorus (P2O5) @ 40- 60 kg/ha and Potash (K2O) @ 40 kg/ha. Apply Zinc Sulphate 25 kg per ha.

Weed Management

Weed management is an important activity in Rice growing. Weeds compete with Rice plants for sunlight and growth and fertilizers. It is necessary to have proper weed control for a healthy growth of Rice plants.

In Transplant method, plough and harrowing kills a lot of weeds. Thereafter submerging in water also destroys a large part of weeds.

In Dry seeding methods weeds also grow alongside rice plants. Weed control may start after one week with use of herbicides like glyphosate or by light manual cultivation. In later stage, spraying of herbicides like fenoxaprop _ ethoxysulfuron, bentazon etc. is also advisable. The spray should be kept pointing downwards.

Control of Pests and Diseases

As with any other crop, Rice plantation is also prone to many diseases and pests. Sizeable loss is caused to farmers because of such attacks.

Preventive Measures

Clean equipment and field during sowing seasons.
Use Resistant variety of seeds.
Keep up sowing with your neighbors.
Over application of fertilization should be avoided.
Delay Pesticide application till plants are firmly growing

Control of pests and diseases using inorganic compounds:

Pests:

Rice is infected by a very large number of pests; some important and prominent ones are Stem Borers, Nematode, Thrips, Leafhopper, Hispa, Leaf Folder, Mealy Bug and Caterpillar. Depending on the pest, use of Phorate, Imidaclorprid, Cartap, Fipronil, Chlorpyriphos, M-45 Spray, etc. in recommended dosages.

Diseases:

Important diseases are Leaf Blast, Neck Blast, Brown Spot, Discoloration, Bacterial Blight. Again recommended dosages of Carbendazim, Tricyclazole, Mancozeb M-45, good fertilization etc. would help in combating the diseases.

also see in this site

Health Benefits of Rice

Rice has a number of health benefits for the mankind. It provides instant energy (lots of carbohydrates), good for blood sugar levels, slows down the aging process. It also improves bowel movement as a lot of fiber is present in Rice grain. Vitamin B1 in unprocessed Rice is good for human. It is also said to regulate digestion and given in cases of dysentery and chronic diseases. It is gluten free and prevents obesity.
Rice is also used in cosmetics such as facial cleansers and moisturizers.
Brown Rice has more fiber and protein and vitamins of B group than the processed white Rice.
Research has shown that Rice eating is recommended for Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (World Journal of Gastroenterology, 2018).
There are some opinions that Rice produced with biotechnology methods could be made to have high iron and zinc compounds through bio fortification for better health benefits to mankind.

Nutrition

Example: Nutrition in Rice, white variety, cooked 100gm

Nutrient	Value
Water (g)	68.44
Energy (kcal)	130
Protein (g)	2.69
Total lipid (g)	0.28
Carbohydrate (g)	28.17
Fiber (g)	0.4
Sugars (g)	0.05
Calcium (mg)	10
Iron (mg)	1.2
Magnesium (mg)	12
Phosphorous (mg)	43
Sodium (mg)	1
Zinc (mg)	0.49
Thiamine (mg)	0.16
Source: USDA

Nutrient content of Rice depends on a number of factors.

Rice strain e.g. white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties having different prevalence across world regions.
Nutrient quality of the soil Rice is grown in,
Rice is polished or processed,
Manner it is enriched and how it is prepared before consumption.

setting of grains

Harvesting

Harvesting of Rice to get Paddy consists of steps as below:

Reaping: the matured plant consisting of panicles and straw is cut.
Threshing: in this activity, farmer threshes the reaped out plant to separate the paddy grain from the rest of cut crop.
Field drying: of the cut crop in the field exposed to sun for drying out.
Stacking: storing of the harvested crop in stacks or piles

The following steps to properly harvest the crop are recommended before actually doing harvesting:

Harvest at right moisture content. Time the harvest.
Harvesting too early results in lower yield as there are immature or unfilled grains.
Harvesting too late may result in losses and increased breakage in Rice.
Harvesting also affects the germination potential of seed.
Harvesting time generally indicated as 110-120 days after sowing for direct seeded Rice and 100-110 days after transplantation. However other factors like variety, moisture content, and number of days after heading may also be taken into account.
Threshing may be undertaken immediately after Reaping to avoid need for rewetting.

Harvesting systems:

Manual methods for both Reaping and Threshing.
Reap manually and do threshing by portable or small stationary Thresher.
In large holdings Combiner Machine is utilized to carry out all steps of harvesting.

Milling Process to get Rice from Paddy

Milling is done after paddy production. In the Milling process husk and bran layers are removed from the paddy which produces what is termed as white Rice. Depending on milling system, the Rice so produced can undergo further processing such as polishing and enrichment.

As a rule of thumb milling process results in around 65-70% percent Rice, 20% husk and about 10% bran. Total white Rice would consist of whole Rice and broken Rice. This depends on the milling machines and their operators.

The best quality Rice will be attained if the quality of paddy is good and the Rice is milled properly.

For good milling practice, farmer needs to pay attention to following:

Pre-clean paddy before husking.
Ensure correct moisture content during milling (app 14%).
Different varieties of Rice are not mixed prior to milling

Storage

Storage of Rice, as of any other food, requires protection from adverse weather, moisture, rodents, birds, insects and fungi. It is better to store Rice in paddy form which provides some protection against insects. However Rice form requires lesser space for storing and may be preferred as such. Rice can be stored in jute or plastic bags, can be hermetically stored, and can be stored in farm in large quantities. Containers and zipped plastic bags are also available for storing. Rice absorbs moisture and if stored in moist conditions could germinate in storage.

For further information:

http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org https://www.haifa-group.com

Note: The author himself is a small farmer and involved with such farming. Certain data are taken from usually reliable sources on the net.

Posted in Cereals Tagged with: classification of rice, paddy, rice, rice farming

Ways to Succeed in Tomato Farming

Posted on June 5, 2019 by

nkp — No Comments ↓

TOMATO Growing and Uses Including MEDICINAL Properties

Introduction

tomatoes home gardening

Tomato Farming is very old in the world. Human have been growing this fruit categorised as vegetable for long.

Solanum lycopersicum, which we know as TOMATO, is a perennial plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family. Tomato can grow all year round. It can grow from 1-3 meter tall. Some facts from wiki and other sources about this well-loved plant and its fruits are as below:

“Tomatoes originated from the Andes, in what is now called Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Ecuador – where they grew wild. They were first cultivated by the Aztecs and Incas as early as 700 AD. Tomatoes didn’t arrive in Europe until the 16th Century, although it is not known how. It has been said that they were brought back from Central America by Spanish Conquistadors.

The English word ‘tomato’ derives from the word ‘tomatl’ its name in Nahunta, the language of the Aztec people. The English form ‘tomate’ first appeared in the 17^th century, and was later modified to ‘tomato’, probably under the influence of the more familiar “potato”.

Legend has it that the first tomato to be eaten in the United States was consumed in a public demonstration by John Gibbon, at Salem, Massachusetts on September 26th 1830. Despite warnings that its poison would turn his blood to acid he did not fall to the ground, frothing at the mouth, or get appendicitis, as had been predicted. It was not until the 19th Century that commercial tomato cultivation began.”

The fruit is an edible, brightly colored (usually red, from the pigment lycopene) berry, in different shapes and sizes. Though it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is nutritionally categorized as a vegetable.

tomatoes on a plant

Suitable climate for Tomato Farming

Tomato can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. However, too hot or too cold weather is counterproductive to fruit size and flowering. It prefers moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are very favorable for the formation of bulbs. It can be grown well at elevations of 1000 to 1300 m above MSL.

Commercial growing is very profitable if done in protected environment with drip irrigation and Fertigation equipment.

Soil requirements for Tomato Farming

Tomato can grow in all sorts of soils, but well drained sandy loam and clay-loam soils rich in humus with fairly good Potash content are best for its cultivation. The soil should be well aerated. Heavy soil should be avoided. Soils with high organic matter are preferred; FYM (Farm Yard Manure) or compost should be incorporated during land preparation. Soil for beds require lots of organic matter, lots of compost, dry leaves and soil compost.

Lay out should ensure that Soil has good internal drainage.

The optimum pH range for the soil is between 6 and 7.

Methods of growing Tomatoes

Tomato may be grown in two ways:

Preparing seedlings from Tomato seeds in nurseries.
By planting cut stalks in the pots and transplanting.

Seedlings

Tomato seeds are prepared for growing by first treating it with Trichoderma viride 4 gm/kg or carbendazim 2 gm/kg for fungal resistance. After drying the seeds are sown in raised nursery beds 10 cm apart. The nursery beds should have been given proper dosage of farm yard manure and NPK in proportion. The beds should have also been fumigated (also drenched with Bavistin) and all and any grass has been removed beforehand. Approximately 4 kg of seeds is sufficient for one hectare planting. The seeds are normally sown in the months of September/October. The Tomato seedlings are ready by January. It is suggested to spray drench the beds with NPK 19:19:19 5gm/liter 18 days after seeding.

Planting

Land is prepared by ploughing 3 or 4 times (or as required). The earth should not have any lumps or boulders. It should be well aerated. The Tomato roots penetrate deep into earth. Therefore plants should be planted in deep holes as roots will come out from the upper part of tomato plants.

Fertilizers Applications

Farmyard manure around 250 kg per hectare. Add following as top dressing.

100-125 kg N/hectare
50-80 kg P/hectare
50-100 kg K/hectare

Add Borax and Zinc Sulphate as per the soil report. The farmer may after studying his soil report also provide other micro nutrients if indicated.

Nitrogen fertilizers are given in two split dosage – one right in the beginning and the other after about 30 days.

The actual planting distance depends on the variety planted. For Dwarf varieties may be spaced about 12 inches apart in a row. For staked plants, space may be about 24 inches apart. Sprawling, indeterminate tomatoes are set about 36 to 48 inches apart. Tomatoes need space for good air circulation; otherwise diseases may manifest. Mulching the beds is very helpful if drip irrigation is being done.

Companion Plants in Tomato Farming

Some of the companion plants which may be grown along with tomatoes are marigolds, basil, calendula, carrots, peppers, onions and others.

Water requirement

Sufficient watering is required for Tomatoes so that plants do not have water distress. Over watering however is detrimental for the Tomato plants.

It takes 40-60 days from flowering for a tomato to reach full ripeness, depending on temperature and the variety.

Additional Spray during production

NPK 19:19:19 plus Manganese @ 1% after 45 days of planting to invigorate growth.
Spray of zinc Sulphate @ 0.5% weekly or so after about 35 days of planting.

Weed control in Tomato Farming

Weed control needs to be an important cultural operation. Weeding, thinning and earthing up are the important intercultural operations of Tomato farming.

Shallow rooted inter-row cultivation and hand weeding may be used to minimize weeds in the inter row zone.

Control of Pests and Diseases in Tomato Farming

rot set in due to ground contact

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Tomato is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

Downey Mildew: spraying Dithane M-45 at interval is recommended.
Green Jassids: spray of chloropyrofos/ dichlorvos/dimethoate/phorate/imidacloprid
Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray endosulfan/chloropyrofos. Spread phorate.
White Fly: spray Malathion. Drench with thimet.
Thrips: spray imidaclorprid/chloropyrosdimethoate. Several sprays may be required.
Caterpillar may be handpicked and removed.
Grubs are in the earth and they chew on the roots. Later on they transform into beetles and chew leaves. Imidaclorprid spray and drenching is indicated.
Fungal diseases, brown powdery on leaves. It is advised to remove such leaves. Spray neem oil one teaspoon into approximately 10 liters of water.
Leaf blight makes leaves turn yellow. Even though the vigor of the plant may not be much affected, plant look becomes ungainly. Remove such leaves.
Spray of Zineb or Mancozeb may be regularly done weekly.
Leaf curl can be prevented by spray of dimethoate.

Some supposed Health Benefits of Tomato

Below are a collection of some commonly believed and perceived medicinal and health benefits of tomotoes. The author has no personal knowledge except he found tomato great in taste.

Vitamins

Tomatoes are a good source of Vitamins A, C and E, beta-carotene and lycopene and flavonoids. Tomatoes also contain potassium, calcium and other mineral salts.

Potassium has been linked to lowering blood pressure and calcium is vital for healthy bones and teeth.

Grilled tomatoes are high in carotene and folate.

The vitamins and antioxidants found in tomatoes are thought to combat the harmful effects of free radicals (rogue molecules) that cause cell damage, which can trigger such diseases as cancer and heart disease. According to recent research, the natural red tomato pigment, lycopene, may particularly active in protecting the body against these diseases.

Tomatoes are an excellent source of vitamin C, a nutrient known for its antioxidant action and also contain an abundance of other carotenoids, including beta-carotene, making it a rich source of vitamin A.

Lycopene

Lycopene has already been linked with reducing the risk of prostate cancer. Research has shown that a low dose of lycopene combined with vitamin E slowed greatly growth of human prostate tumors implanted in the mice in a study, compared to mice who had not had the treatment.

Tomato consumption is believed to benefit the heart among other things. Lycopene in tomato has been found to help prevent prostate, lung, stomach, pancreatic, colorectal, esophageal, oral, breast and cervical cancers. Cooked tomatoes have more than double effectiveness of lycopene.

Uses in personal life

To relieve bloodshot eyes, Chinese doctors suggest eating 1 or 2 fresh tomatoes first thing in the morning on an empty stomach.

Tomato is excellent for a face wash that loosens the top layer of dead skin cells and rub them off.

For Persistent Fatigue – Hypoglycemic people (those who have low blood sugar) are beset with constant fatigue and lack of energy; Tomatoes are useful in rebuilding their strength.

Drinking fresh tomato juice can help to regenerate the damaged, destroyed or surgically removed liver, promoting its health and well-being and counteracting the negative effects of an overly-rich diet by helping the liver break down fats and eliminate them more easily.

To get odor free and dandruff free hair, you can apply tomato paste on the scalp and wash after 15 minutes.

Antibiotic

Antibiotic (leaves) – Tomatoes have also been widely used as a natural antiseptic agent, because of its nicotinic acids.

Risks of eating TOMATO

Like with everything which has good properties, Tomato may also have some side effects. It is true that only a few studies Tomato have linked to negative side effects.

Over consumption of Tomatoes for diabetic patients can be harmful.

It goes without saying that Tomato can contain bacteria, pesticides, and other dangerous substances if it is not thoroughly washed.

Harvesting of Tomato

Tomatoes may be picked up when firm and red in color regardless of size with perhaps some yellow remaining. If some fall off before ripening, place them in a paper bag with step up and store in a cool dry place.

Tip: To ripen home grown tomatoes, place them in a paper bag with a ripe tomato and keep at room temperature.

Posted in vegetables Tagged with: methods of growing tomatoes, tomatoes

How To Maize Farming

Posted on April 6, 2019 by

nkp — No Comments ↓

Some introduction to Maize

Maize is interchangeably also known as corn. Natives of southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago are credited with first use of this cereal grain for consumption. Maize subsequently spread throughout the American continents. Maize spread to the rest of the world as European contacts happened with the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th century. Worldwide, production of maize surpasses that of wheat or rice.

maize field

Maize is a facultative long-night plant and flowers in a certain number of growing degree days > 50 °F (10 °C) in the environment to which it is adapted. The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize flowers is genetically prescribed and regulated by the phytochrome system. Photoperiodicity can be eccentric in tropical cultivars, while the long day’s characteristic of higher latitudes allows the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost. These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for biofuels.

The kernel of corn has a pericarp of the fruit fused with the seed coat, typical of the grasses. It is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows round a white pithy substance, which forms the ear. An ear contains from 200 to 400 kernels, and is from 10–25 centimeters (4–10 inches) in length. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour, with much less bran, than wheat does. However, it lacks the protein gluten of wheat and therefore makes baked goods with poor rising capability.

: maize in field ready

: nascent maize plant

A genetic variation that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn.

Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one). DIMBOA is a member of a group of hydroxamic acids (also known as benzoxazinoids) that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests including insects, pathogenic fungi and bacteria. DIMBOA is also found in related grasses, particularly wheat. A maize mutant (bx) lacking DIMBOA is highly susceptible to be attacked by aphids and fungi. DIMBOA is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the European corn borer (family Crambidae). As maize matures, DIMBOA levels and resistance to the corn borer decline.

Classification of Maize

Maize (Zea mays) is an annual plant which belongs to family Gramineae and Genus Zea. A Zea may L. has 10 pair of chromosome. It is divided into eight groups on the basis of the endosperm of kernels.

Dent corn (Zea mays indentata Sturt)
Flint corn (Zea mays indurate Sturt)
Popcorn (Zea mays everta Sturt)
Flour corn (Zea mays amylacea Sturt)
Sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Sturt)
Pod corn (Zea mays tunicate Sturt)
Waxy corn (Zea mays ceratina Kulesh)
Baby corn (Zea mays)
Nutrition provided by Maize

Raw, yellow, sweet maize kernels are mainly composed of

76% water,
19% carbohydrates,
3% protein, and
1% fat (table).

In a 100-gram serving, maize kernels provide 86 calories. Maize kernels are a good source (10-19% of the Daily Value) of the B vitamins, thiamin, niacin, pantothenic acid (B5) and folate. It also has dietary fiber and essential minerals, magnesium and phosphorus and low amounts of other nutrients.

Maize has a lower status as a protein source. The indigenous Americans overcame this deficiency with the inclusion of beans in their diet.

Use

Maize is a staple food for a large part of the population around the globe. However, Maize or Corn can be consumed in a variety of ways: including, but not limited to,

As porridge (such as grits, polenta, or ugali),
A popcorn, roasted or fired kernels,
As a vegetable (in the form of fresh, frozen, or canned sweet corn),
As flour or meal (cornbread, tortillas, chips, extruded snacks, etc.)
Ethanol (for either drinking or as a fuel source for motor vehicles),
As animal feed,
Biomass for energy,
Source of cooking oil,
Corn syrup and corn starch in the food industry.

Top Maize producers

As per data released for 2014, the following are the top ten countries in in decreasing order.

South Africa (15.5 million metric tons)
France (17.1 million metric tons)
Indonesia (19.0 million metric tons)
Mexico (32.6 million metric tons)
Ukraine (39.2 million metric tons)
Argentina (40.0 million metric tons)
India (42.3 million metric tons)
Brazil (83.0 million metric tons)
China (224.9 million metric tons)
USA (377.5 million metric tons)

Suitable Climate for Maize growing

Maize does well on a wide range of climatic conditions, and it is grown in the tropical as well as temperate regions, from sea-levels up to altitudes of 2500m. It is however susceptible to frost at all stages of its growth.

Maize is essentially a warm weather crop. It is grown under extremely divergent climatic conditions in different parts of the world, ranging from tropical to temperate regions. It is widely cultivated from the sea level up to altitudes of 2,500m. It can be successfully grown where the night temperature does not go below 15.6 degree C. It cannot withstand frost at any stage of it’s grow.

A large proportion of maize acreage is sown under rain fed conditions during the monsoon when over 80 per cent of the annual rainfall is received.

Land Preparation

Maize requires a firm and compact seed bed free from stubbles and weed. One deep Ploughing should be given, followed by two or three harrowing to bring the soil to a fine tilth. Add 10-15 tons of FYM or compost before last harrowing and mix thoroughly with harrow. Add some herbicides also get rid of weeds. For more details please refer to my page on this website “7-Steps for Successful Agricultural Practice by Farmers“.

Soil:

Maize can be grown successfully in variety of soils ranging from loamy sand to clay loam. Soils with good organic matter content having high water holding capacity with neutral pH are considered good for higher productivity. Avoid low lying fields having poor drainage and also the field having higher salinity as Maize is sensitive to both moisture stress and excess soil moisture.

Sowing Method

Maize seed should be sown with dibbling or drilling method. The chosen method depends on purpose of sowing, type of maize, varieties and farm condition.

Selection of seed:

Farmer needs to ensure to purchase seeds of good quality from reliable sources.

Seed treatment before sowing:

Disease/insect-pest	Fungicide/Pesticide	Rate of application (gm./ kg seed)
Turcicum Leaf Blight, Banded Leaf, Sheath Blight, Leaf Blight	Bavistin + Captan in 1:1 ratio	2.0
BSMD	Apran 35 SD	4.0
Pythium Stalk Rot	Captan	2.5
Termite and shoot fly	Imidachlorprid	4.0

Sowing time:

The optimum time of sowing are given below.

Last week of June to first fortnight of July

Last week of October for inter cropping and up to15th of November for sole crop

First week of February

Seed rate and plant geometry:

To achieve higher productivity and resource-use efficiencies optimum plant stand is the key factor. The seed rate varies depending on purpose, seed size, plant type, season, sowing methods etc. The following crop geometry and seed rate is suggested.

Sr. No.	Purpose	Seed rate (kg ha-1)	Plant geometry (plant x row, cm)	Plant population
1	Grain (normal and Â QPM)	20	60 x 20 75 x 20	83333 66666
2	Sweet corn	8	75 x 25 75 x 30	53333 44444
3	Baby corn	25	60 x 20 60 x 15	83333 111111
4	Pop corn	12	60 x 20	83333
5	Green cob (normal maize)	20	75 x 20 60 x 20	66666 83333
6	Fodder	50	30 x 10	333333

Farmers are well advised to contact agricultural officers of their area for the particular variety of seeds.

Depth of sowing

Seed should not be sown more 5-6 cm depth of soil.

Weed management

Weeds are the serious problem in maize, particularly during rainy season crops they compete with maize for nutrient and causes yield loss up to 35 %. Therefore, timely weed management is needed for achieving higher yield.

Before planting of maize, use of available selective and non-selective herbicides like Atrazine, Gesaprim, Alochar, Metolachlor, Gluphosate, and Paraquat should be used. It goes without saying that adequate precaution and use of proper equipment needs to be taken.

Irrigation in Maize farming

The irrigation water management depends on season as about 80 % of maize is cultivated during monsoon season particularly under rain fed conditions. However, in areas with assured irrigation facilities are available, depending upon the rains and moisture holding capacity of the soil, irrigation should be applied as and when required by the crop and first irrigation should be applied very carefully wherein water should not overflow on the ridges/beds. In general, the irrigation should be applied in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds. Young seedlings, knee high stage, flowering and grain filling are the most sensitive stages for water stress and hence irrigation should ensure at these stages.

In raised bed planting system and limited irrigation water availability conditions, the irrigation water can also be applied in alternate furrow to save more irrigation water. In rain fed areas, tied-ridges are helpful in conserving the rainwater for its availability in the root zone for longer period. For winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet (frequent & mild irrigation) during 15 December to 15 February to protect the crop from frost injury.

It has been estimated that the maize crop requires about 50 per cent of the total water requirement in a short period of 30-35 days after tasselling. A lack of adequate moisture during the grain filling stage adversely affects yield.

Control of Pests and Diseases in Maize Farming

(A) Diseases:

Leaf Blight: Manifestation of oval to round, yellowish-purple spots on leaves. The affected leaves dry up and appear as if burnt. In severe cases, the plants may become stunted, resulting in poorly-formed ears.

Control:

The crop can be sprayed with Dithane M-45 or Indofil @ 35-40 Gms or Blue Copper @55 -60 Gms in 18 liters water, 2-3 sprays at 15 days interval, will effectively control the disease.

(B) Insect Pests:

Stem borer: These borers feed on leaves in the earlier stages. Later on they bore into the stem and cobs, rendering the plant unproductive.

Control:

– After harvest, the stalks and stubbles should be collected from the field and burnt.
– Crop can be sprayed twice with Thiodan 35 EC @ 27 ml in 18 liters water, once 20-25 days after germination and the Second spray at the time of grain formation (in endemic areas).
2) Red Hairy Caterpillars: Caterpillars feed and destroy the whole plant if the attack is in the early stages of growth.

Control:

– Egg masses and young caterpillars should be collected as soon as detected, and destroyed.
– The field should be ploughed out after the crop is harvested, so as to expose pupae.
– Thiodan 35 EC @ 27 ml in 18 liters water should be sprayed only as last resort.

3) Aphids: Tiny, soft bodied insects, usually green in color. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and young.

Risks of eating Maize

When maize was first introduced into farming systems other than those used by traditional native-American peoples, it was generally welcomed with enthusiasm for its productivity. However, a widespread problem of identified as PALLAGRA soon arose wherever maize was introduced as a staple food. It was eventually discovered that the indigenous Americans had learned to soak maize in alkali-water (the process now known as nixtamalization) —made with ashes and lime (calcium oxide) since at least 1200–1500 BC by Mesoamericans and North Americans—which liberates the B-vitamin niacin, the lack of which was the underlying cause of the condition known as pellagra. Newer varieties and method have evolved to introduce niacin to make maize food safer.

Pellagra still exists today in food-poor areas and refugee camps where people survive on donated maize.

Harvesting and Storage

The maize crop sown for grain is harvested when the grains are nearly dry and do not contain more than 20 per cent moisture. Ears are removed from the standing crop. Harvested ears are dried in the sun before shelling. In the case of the late-sown crop, farmers prefer to harvest the whole plants and pile them, and the ears are removed are removed later. Maize stalks are used as cattle feed or fuel.

In fact, no part of the maize plant, even the cobs from which the grains have been removed, is left unused.

While small holding farmers may use manual or low capacity mechanical shellers, large holding farmers use bigger shellers for grain removal from the cobs.

Yield

Considerable variation in grain yield is observed. The yield levels depend upon the variety, the amount of the fertilizer used, and the rainfall pattern etc. highest yield is said to be obtained in USA.

Suggestion for further Reading:

https://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/crop%20info/maize.htm

Posted in Cereals Tagged with: classification of maize, maize farming

Protected Environ – Key to Extended Vegetable Production

Posted on February 26, 2019 by

nkp — No Comments ↓

Grow Vegetables in Protected Environs

Protected Environs are meant primarily to prevent incoming of pests, virus, fungis, etc. into your crops. Protected Environs also allow control on watering and fertilization of the crops.

Importantly, Protected Environs also help us from weather vagaries and allow production almost all year round.

Weather prediction is rather difficult. More difficult is believing in the weather predictions. Sophistication level of weather prediction has increased phenomenally due to advanced modeling; however, the uncertain unmapped effect of climate change makes weather predictions fuzzy. So there is we the farmers happy that sunny weather is predicted and happily we sow the seeds. But unexpectedly you get warnings of thundershowers and low temperature fronts moving towards your areas. So there goes all expectations.

Almost every agriculture crop (cereals, veggies, flowers, fruits etc.) can be produced in protective Environs. The type and size of protective environment is defined by the crop. If for home grown vegetables low tunnel is enough, for flowers full polyhouses are required. Farmer needs to consider several aspects before deciding on type, and size, of Protected Environs. Here we are considering vegetable production only.

Indicative List for deciding Protected Environs

1. Soil and Water quality available. Decision about fertilizer type and quantity.
2. What vegetables he will grow. Prefer self-pollinated varieties.
3. What type of Protected Environs he will provide. What will be the size?
4. Market analysis.

Farmer having decided on aspects 1 and 2 above, this blog discusses aspect 3 in some detail.

Types of Protected Environs

1. Air-conditioned Greenhouse.
2. Natural Air Flow Greenhouse.
3. Low cost Poly houses.
4. Walk-in-Tunnel.
5. Insect Resistant Net house, and
6. Low Plastic Tunnel.

I have discussed the first three types in this site and more information may please be seen there.

Walk-in-Tunnel

straight wall walk in tunnel

Walk in Tunnels come in various sizes and shapes.

Based on Size

1. Tall type
2. Low Type

Based on Shape

1. Hemispherical
2. Straight side

Typical sizes are: Height 7 feet to 12 feet; Width: 12 to 15 feet; Length: is as per land and acreage requirement. Length is also dependent on the size of poly sheet.

Too high tunnels mean greater wind resistant structures.

Straight wall type walk-in-tunnel is about 10 feet height at center and provides greater mobility to farmer.

The material used is based on economics and desired longevity of tunnel. Common material used for structures is:

• steel and GI pipes
• Bamboo
• PVC and polyethylene pipes
.
PVC pipe tunnels with short life are used with success. Such tunnels are easy to build and cost is less. It is also possible to shift place of such tunnels easily. Two-inch diameter SDR-11 black poly pipe is a better choice than PVC pipe for constructing houses up to 14 feet in width. This thick-walled, high density polyethylene pipe is commonly used in the oil and gas industry and in geothermal energy systems. It is more flexible and has a slower rate of photo-degradation (the process that causes brittleness) compared to PVC. More information check out here. https://www.noble.org/globalassets/docs/ag/pubs/horticulture/nf-ho-12-02.pdf

Use of such tunnels is recommended in winter season growing of such vegetables like cucumber, squash, pepper, bitter gourdes, water melons, brinjals, capsicum etc. Such tunnels are also productive for hilly places. If used for summers, vents are needed to be provided.
It is suggested that tunnels are aligned east to west to get most sunshine.

Insect Resistant Net house

insect resistant net house

Net houses are basically naturally ventilated climate controlled Protected Environs. More useful for summer seasons to provide shade and thus bring down temperature to the crop.
Net house structures allow growing vegetables in a way similar to that of the regular greenhouses, but with a relatively low investment. Vegetables growth within net houses must start and end in adequate periods from the climatic point of view. Therefore, the crop must be planned in such a way that most of the produce should be collected before the rainy season and the consequent lower temperatures.

Rain infiltration through the net, even if minimal, wets the plants. Prolonged wetness produces chapping of fruits, lowers quality and increases the risk of diseases. It also causes withering and drying of the leaves.

The net houses must be thoroughly covered by means of a net of size mesh – 50 that does not allow the passage of insects. The use of mesh 50 net was standardized following experiments that verified that white fly’s cannot pass through through such nets. These nets are manufactured with 22-24 micron woven fibers at 50 threads per inch, and stabilized against radiation wear-and-tear, thus giving them an extended useful life.

The mesh nets contribute towards reducing the usage of insecticides due to their ability to physically impede the entry of insects into the net house.
The reduction of insecticide application allows the utilization of bees for pollination and fertilization of the tomato flowers within the net houses and the net-covered structures.
The design of shade house frames depend on the need and available engineering skill. Structural frames of Quonset, gable or Gothic arch shape or with minor modification suitable to local condition are recommended in high rainfall areas. Like for Walk-in-Tunnel structure, G.I. or PVC pipes may be utilized.

Low Plastic Tunnel

pvc low tunnel

Plastics tunnel popularly known as low tunnels are miniature structures producing greenhouse like effect. These tunnels facilitate the entrapment of carbon dioxide, thereby enhancing the photosynthetic activities of the plant that help to increase yield. These structures also protect the plants from high wind, rain, frost and snow. Besides being inexpensive, these structures are easy to construct and dismantle.

Low tunnels have been used for producing healthy and high value nurseries. Use of low tunnels has been effective in crops such as Tomato, Cucumber, Radish, Beans, Asparagus, Strawberries, Melon and Tobacco etc.

Advantages

• Used for raising healthy and early nursery.
• Maintains optimum temperature for plant growth.
• Enhances nutrients uptake by the plants.
• Increases photosynthetic activities of the plants.
• Used for cultivation during winter.
• Protection against wind, rain, frost & snow.

Material Required for Construction

• HDPE / PVC pipes of one inch diameter & 2 meter in length.
• Transparent LDPE films of 25-50 microns having 2 meter width.
• 50 cm long with 6 mm diameter GI wires in which Peg to be made.
• 2 No. of Poles having 5 cm diameter.
• Twin Poly Propylene (PP) ropes.

Interested in further reading:

https://articles.extension.org/pages/18356/low-cost-high-tunnel-construction

https://www.ncpahindia.com/shade-net

Posted in implements&machinery, vegetables

SIX STEPS TO MAKE AGRICULTURE AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

Posted on February 2, 2019 by

nkp — 17 Comments ↓

AGRICULTURE AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY – FOLLOW THESE SIX STEPS

Farmer is the real king. He owes nothing to anybody. He works as per his will and pleasure. Out of his labor, mother earth provides all types of boons to the mankind for its very survival. Agriculture is an Economic Activity. However, no factories producing mechanized gadgets, arms, clothes and what not can do what farmer does – provide nourishing and necessary food articles. There is a saying in Hindi, “Uttam Kheti madhyam Ban Adham Chakri Bheekh Nidhan”. Translated into English, it means that for human beings agriculture is the best profession, followed by Business, followed by Service and last is Begging.

All nations salute two classes – its soldiers and its farmers.

Given such a high place in the society, it is worth considering why the farming community at most places is under stress. That it is under stress is beyond doubt.

Just compare the cost of food articles and others such as cloth, steel, petrol, gold, land, rents etc. etc. in the past, say twenty years ago, and today. Prices of all others are far far higher than those of food articles which are only marginally higher. That is the stress of the farmers. True their land value is going up but the produce value is just even stevens.

A farmer is forever egged on to increase the production to get some marginally higher returns. Meanwhile due to expansion of family, the land available per farmer goes on decreasing. Value of fertilizers, the labor rates, machinery costs keep on mounting. That is farmer stress.

The root cause of stress is artificially lowered rates of his produce by governments of the world. Why – so that people and the government can spend money after money on entertainment, lavish lifestyle, arms race, etc. etc. That is why farmers are going into service and other businesses. That is farmer stress. No value in Agricultural an Economic Activity!

However that is not what this blog concerned about. It is only concerned about what can be done to alleviate farmer stress. How the pristine glory of farming can be restored. How to revitalise agriculture as an Economic Value way of life.

AND THAT MEANS INCREASING INCOME OF FARMER IN SYNC WITH GENERAL PRICE INCREASE.

THE SOLUTION: TREAT AGRICULTURE AS AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY — AS ANY OTHER INDUSTRY. CALCULATE YOUR INVESTMENT, PROFITS AND LOSSES.

So Farmer friends, say NO MORE to HIT AND RUN techniques of yore. I give below the SIX most essential steps to plan agricultural activity in your farm designed to raise the income. Just forget how you or your elders did farming and follow, if you like, the steps suggested. So here we go.

Be knowledgeable (to make agriculture an economic activity)

Climate change is no longer a big ticket discussion topic now; it is happening – climate change is happening. Farmer needs to tune in to the weather predictions, study the pattern changes and do planting/sowing accordingly.

What WiKi says about climate change

Wiki has following explanation on this climate changes.

“The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s. Related impacts include ocean circulation changes, increased input of freshwater, and ocean acidification. Indirect effects through potential climate teleconnections to mid latitudes may result in a greater frequency of extreme weather events (flooding, fires and drought), ecological, biological and phenology changes, biological migrations and extinctions, natural resource stresses and as well as human health, displacement and security issues. Potential methane releases from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, may occur.

Presently, the Arctic is warming twice as fast compared to the rest of the world. The pronounced warming signal, the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland’s ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. According to a study published in 2016, about 0.5°C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980”.

Keep updated Soil and Water data

Another aspect of Being Knowledgeable is update soil and water data on a regular way. This will allow farmer to change fertilizer quantities and fertilization schedules as required by the particular crop – what is called DESIGNER CROPPING. This will save costs on use of excess or unrequired fertilizers and time on unnecessary fertilization scheduling.

Go for Variety

Agriculture scientists world over have found, and keep on finding, varieties of different agriculture seeds, plants etc., which have more power to resist diseases and viruses. And even pest resistant. And require less watering. There are methods of inter cropping which provide big benefits of fertilization and also of pest resistance. And then one can plant two types together to protect from pests. Farmers please this is a big subject and it is not possible to deal with this in this blog. But I hope you understand what is being said in this Para.

Great to have farms close to home

Man is by nature a social animal and likes to lives in a cluster – a village, a city. This puts a strain on a farmer as then he is away from his farm for considerable time in a day. In some analysis done elsewhere, it was found that a successful farmer had his home where his farm was. This becomes one of the essentials for success in farming in developing economies. The developed economies, with easy availability of satellite based visual and sensor monitoring provides comfort – though travel times still exist.

Diversify or don’t put all your eggs in one basket

Farming based purely on agriculture is a losing business. Farmers need to diversity – make farming an all-encompassing activity which runs all 12 months, all days, all the year round like any other economic activity or an industrial activity. Planning, Supervision, Monitoring and Control Techniques as applied to industry need to be applied to farming as well, and in the same routinized manner diligently. Dairy, Poultry, Agriculture, Storage, Value Addition… (Tomato ketchup), .Dairy would provide good amount of fertilizers to the field for your crops as required. Farmer would also make his own type of pesticides. Storage allows freedom from distress selling. Plant would allow utilizing unsold inventory of fruits and vegetables to be put into bottles can be sold to neighborhood malls. Earmark some part of your land for poly houses where due to large control on environment all year round production is possible.

Idea is not to put all your eggs in one basket. So always farmer would have fail safe options to remain financially viable.

Be Ready With Strategies and Solutions for Any Risks.

Like in war Like in peace. Never take things for granted. There is some where a law which says that if things can wrong, likely they will go wrong. You may have ploughed beautifully, sown the best seeds, given the best fertilizer, the sun is bright, and things seem good. But what happens weather all of a sudden turns bad, locusts arrive from nowhere, there are so many things which can go bad for a farmer. Farming is not a controlled environment activity. It is here that farmer needs to be ready with pre-thought out responses to such exigencies and ready with solutions for same. New seeds, special spray material and machines for same, fast response all would count.

Conserve and Transform Waste into Fertilizer and Pesticides.

It is very obvious and yet so many of us would burn the residuals from wheat, rice, vegetables and what not. NO the correct thing is conserve and transforms all such waste in to fertilizers and pesticides. There are a number of methods how to do it. The easiest is to put all waste in a heap and let it rot into fine fertilizer material. The process can be accentuated by layering it with dung material and also by worms. I would refer to my blog on same.

Keep Up With government Schemes but Not Be Blinded By miss-selling By Agencies.

Governments do try to alleviate problems faced by agriculturists. They do it in various ways. It is done according to agreed formula in the WTO forum. This is so that global marketing is competitive. Governments directly or through its various agencies provides for incentive s and subsidies separately working in fields of agriculture or horticulture or floriculture or vegetable production or fisheries etc. Now the farmer faced with a number of schemes needs to concentrate on what would be really beneficial to him. There are schemes which could have riders attached requiring farmers to delve in newer activities. Newer activities could clash with the routinized activities of farmer and may sometimes not result in any gains at all.

Always Maintain a Balance Sheet of Expenditure and Income.

This is one of the most essential activities. So what is a balance sheet? It is a statement of financial position of your agricultural and allied economic activities where your assets, liabilities and your own equity are shown at a particular time, generally once a year. It shows your net worth.

Have also your Income Statement and Cash Flows statement updated.One needs to count all the monies, expend it well to obtain calculated returns on same. Allocate funds in the beginning, plan for fund flows (as you sell your produce) and for investment on items such as seeds, fertilizer, water, electricity, purchase of new equipment, maintenance, wages for labor employed and salary and bonus for yourself and savings for next cycle.

A very strict monitoring is required, monetary discipline being the key. Normally a farmer does not fuss about such matters; but believe me it is a must must. As the title of this blog says AGRICULTURE IS AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY. And profits out of this activity must be had.

Do you realize your anticipated profits? please do share.

Posted in farm guide Tagged with: agriculture is an ecomomic activity, climate change, designer crops, farmer stress, risks, strategies, waste to fertiliser

THREE STEPS TO FUTURE AGRICULTURE

Posted on December 29, 2018 by

nkp — No Comments ↓

“Agriculture exists first to feed people and has done so for thousands of years, and it will have to continue doing the same for hopefully many more.” FAO Each second, the world’s population grows by nearly three more people, that is 240 000 people a day. By 2025, the global population will reach 8 billion people and 9.6 billion by 2050, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). That is an extra billion mouths to feed within the next decade. And in just one generation, there will be more people additional on the planet than there were at the beginning of the 20^th century. That is a BIG WAKE UP CALL FOR BOOSTING AGRICULTURE PLANNING FOR FUTURE. The first step then is to spread awareness and to educate our Farmers whom I shall refer in this blog as Agrarian Industrialists. Oh yes, make no mistake agriculture is an industry and one which employs perhaps the largest workforce.

There are THREE STEPS to this awareness and education program.

Awareness to Diminishing returns on classical farming methods still being followed by a large majority of Agrarian Industrialists.
Adopt existing newer technologies fully towards sustainable and incremental returns.
Inform Agrarian Industrialists about future farming practices to really explode production and income (and reverse diminishing returns).

STEP ONE:

Be aware to Diminishing Returns on classical farming methods still being followed. Diminishing Returns – WHY? Several Reasons, but the TOP ONES ….

Shrinking Farm sizes due to division of land over generations, progress of urbanization, factories, hospitals, educational centers, etc. and other reasons.
Drying and dying water sources due to increased water consumption needs of an ever growing human race. Even the river origins are getting inhabited!
Fertilizer to output yields decreasing due to increase in saltiness in earth.
Chemical resistant pests and virus require ever increasing dosages. The high dosages retained in produce are then dangerous for human consumption.
Government policy directives banning use of several pesticides and insecticides which the environmental scientists and researchers found dangerous for humans and bees.
A Growing Go-Back-To-Organic movement; there is preference for a produce which carries “organically grown” tag.

STEP TWO:

Adopt existing new technologies fully towards sustainable and incremental returns. SWITCH immediately to NOW READY technologies – HOW? (May be useful to go over this list even for those Agrarian Industrialists who are into it already)

Use more capital intensive practices than hitherto being followed.
Switch to Protected Cultivation. Vegetables are the best candidate.
Agrarian Industrialists could make a grouping amongst themselves to get benefit of Larger Scale of operations;
Implant Soil and Water Sensors distributed in fields. With ready moisture and nitrogen data of their fields, decisions result in more efficient use of precious resources of water and fertilizer. This also aids in water and fertilizer conservation. Wastage and leakages to ponds, wells and rivers is avoided.
Use drip and sprinklers for irrigation and fertigation.
Use government and community broadcasts on weather predictions for planning activities. Agrarian Industrialists would also not be caught unaware of adverse weather.
Group farming aids in Integrated Farming as well. Opens up more income generating streams. Big benefit ‘Produce your own fertilizers at your time’.

STEP THREE:

INFORM Agrarian Industrialists about future farming practices to really explode production and income (and reverse diminishing returns). Plan for Future Ready Technologies:

Time to move to more capital intensive and KNOWLEDGE BASED practices. So while keeping up with what was suggested above, more is required;
Use Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is the art of connecting and integrating objects, people, information and systems for intelligent production and services.
Use data analysis which would be available through aerial satellite imagery, greenness sensors, soil maps and millions of weather data points.
Use of intelligent sensors for moisture, fertilizer, soil and weather so that AIs keep an eye on their crops and field (with the help of satellite and mobile technologies) without going to every corner of their fields (and even from their home).
Use automation. Too much farm labor reduces performance. Tractors in auto mode for all types of work. Irrigation and fertigation ON DEMAND.
Use the internet and sites of their government and other agencies to track the crops, yields, price movements, shortfall and excess production stats, weather, etc. Plan accordingly to produce what crop, with what aim, and when for optimizing returns. AIs need to be ahead of inflation index and decide on percentage increase year-on-year. This keeps up with real income parity.
Diversify to organic, GMO or non-GMO (his choice depending on his country’s policy), corn, soy, vegetable oils, high worth and exotic vegetables, etc.
Wean away from water guzzling comfort crops like wheat, rice and sugarcane to conserve on precious water in areas prone to water scarcity.
It is the practice of producing food in vertically stacked layers. Most of present Vertical Farming production is in urban areas itself and so transport is minimal. Fresh food is available faster and at lower cost. However, vertical farming is well adaptable to AIs as well. Farmers in all areas can use it to make better use of available land and to grow crops that wouldn’t normally be viable in those locations. Capital Intensive, why yes but returns are said to be great.
The beauty of what has been suggested lies in the ease and simplicity of its execution. By a device owned almost by everybody – the SMART MOBILE PHONE.

It is a struggle in which our Farmers, the Agrarian Industrialists, have been engaged from time immortal since farming began. And the struggle shall go on. But there are many new technologies to the aid of Agrarian Industrialists now and more developing faster. Adoption of technology and keeping an eye on the commodity churning on a routine manner is the need of the hour. Agrarian Industrialist also needs big help by the governments (and it is available already in different form in different countries). Like the human race does, adapting to changes in farming methods too is the mantra for success. Adapt to computer aided agriculture.

Posted in farm guide, TechTalks Tagged with: capital intensive, data analysis, diminishing returns, greenness sensors, IoT, satellite imagery, soil maps, weather predictions

WHEAT FARMING

Posted on December 8, 2018 by

nkp — No Comments ↓

Interested in WHEAT Farming ?

Some Introduction to WHEAT

Wheat is a staple cereal for a large population worldwide. It is difficult to believe of human sustenance without wheat. Wikipedia records that Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize. Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates, protein, nutrients and fiber.

The seeds of wheat grass are cereal grains, and are staple food for millions of human beings. Botanically,wheat kernel is a type of fruit called ‘caryopsis’ – a type of simple dryfruit. Other such caryopsis is maize and rice.

Wheat is believed to have been cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 Before Common Era (BCE). By 6500 BCE it seems to have reached Greece, Cyprus and India. By 3000 BCE it reached British Isles and a millennium later China.(source: Wikipedia)

Classification of WHEAT

Wheat is named differently in different places. Whatever the names, classification methods for wheat varieties follow same standards:

Growing season – winter grown or summer grown.

Protein content. High, Medium or Low.

The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of wheat for a particular use.

Grain color – red,white or amber. Phenolic compounds present in the bran layer impart color to wheat grains.

Nutrition provided by WHEAT

Wheat provides carbohydrates, proteins, nutrients and fiber. Generally as an average, 100 grams wheat provides about 320 kilo calories.It also provides multiple essential nutrients such as protein, vitamins, fiber, minerals. Wheat has about 13% water, 70% carbohydrates and negligible fat. Its 13% protein content is mostly gluten.

Commercial Use

Worldwide wheat is cultivated as cash crop and wheat farmers benefits from such cultivation. Wheat can be easily stored. Use of wheat flour in different ways is done, the best example being bread which is almost universally eaten across the world. Stored wheat is a highly concentrated form of food

Different countries Different Yields

According to Wikipedia, the average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3.3 tonnes per hectare (330 grams per square meter). Among the top most productive farmers were: 1.Ireland with a nationwide average of 10.0 tonnes per hectare, 2. Netherlands(9.2), and 3. Germany, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (each with 8.6).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat#cite_note-fao-prod2014-7

Top WHEAT producers in 2014

Country	millions of tonnes
European Union	157.3
China	126.2
India	95.8
Russia	59.7
United States	55.1
France	39.0
Canada	29.3
Germany	27.8
Pakistan	26.0
Australia	25.3
Ukraine	24.1
World	720
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization^[7]

Suitable climate for WHEAT growing

It is grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. However, it can not stand too hot or too cold weather. It prefers moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are not favorable for the formation of bulbs. Winter wheat lies dormant during winter and grows rapidly in spring. Too cold conditions damage the crop. Spring wheat is sown just as spring starts and harvested in summer. Winter wheat makes for fine flour.

Land Preparation

field ready for plantation

Wheat grows in many types of soil, but it grows best in well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. Two major threats to the wheat plant’s growth are poor soil drainage and high levels of soil acidity. The wheat roots penetrate earth at shallow depths maybe around 6-7 cm. Land needs to be well pulverized. For this land maybe first irrigated and then ploughed two or three times. The seed and initial fertilizers (and if required pesticides and fungicides, depending on the soil) are then planted together. Thereafter one ploughing and one leveling is done so that there is no water drainage problems. This also eliminates any other type of vegetation in the field.

Sowing Methods

Broadcasting: In this method the seeds are broadcast and then worked in by harrowing in order to cover them.
Behind Local Plough: A majority of farmers uses this method. This method consists of dropping the seeds by hand into the furrows that have been opened with local plough.
Drilling: In this method seed is sown by specially made drills called seed drill or ferti-seed drill. With the help of this implement seed drop at desired depth and results in uniform germination and regular stand.
Dibbling: This method is used in case where supply of seed is limited. Sowing is done with the help of a small implement known as ‘Dibbler’. It is a wooden or iron frame with pegs. The frame is pressed in the field and lifted and then one or two seeds are dropped by hand in each of the hole. It is not a common method because it is a very time consuming process.
Zero tillage technique: This new method is used in Rice-Wheat cropping system so that rice stubble need not be removed or destroyed but is utilized as a fertilizer itself. Specially made machines are used for this method.

Depth of sowing

Deep sowing may delay or stifle emergence, while shallow sowing risks seed damage from herbicide uptake. The length of the first shoot (coleoptile) has a bearing on depth of sowing. If a variety is sown deeper than the natural growth extension of the coleoptile, then seedling may not emerge. Most current varieties are derived from so called semi-dwarf lines which have shorter stems and shorter coleoptiles than older varieties.

Depth of sowing depends on soil type and availability of moisture influence. Sowing depths indicated are between 25mm and 50mm depending on soil type and available moisture. Moist conditions shallower depth placements may encourage faster emergence and crop establishment.

Quantity of seed

Farmers aim to achieve a crop density of 150-200 plants per square meter. This means around 60kg/ha seeding rate in lower rainfall zones (up to 400mm annual rainfall) and around 80-90kg/ha in the higher rainfall zones.

Manures and Fertilizers

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, zinc, copper,boron, manganese, iron, and magnesium are required by wheat and most of them are available in soil. Nitrogen is required in the largest amount because it is part of all the proteins in the plant. High yields require higher nitrogen. Wheat also needs a lot of phosphorus, most of which ends up in the grain. Farmer may give 3kg/ha of phosphorus per tonne of expected yield. Other nutrients from the soil are needed in smaller amounts, but all must be present for healthy plant growth and color.

Farm Yard Manure is highly desirable in the land, whatever be the crop. It is same with wheat also. Mixing of around 2 to 2.5 tonnes of FYM per hectares is sufficient. Apart from FYM, it is also recommended to give following fertilizers.

Nitrogen (N) @80 – 120 kg/ha, Phosphorus (P2O5) @ 40- 60 kg/ha and
Potash (K2O) @ 40 kg/ha.

Total quantity of Phosphorus and potash and half the quantity of nitrogen should be applied at the time of sowing. Remaining quantity of Nitrogen should be applied at the time of crown root initiation.

It is recommended to have soil studies done before sowing and application of fertilizers to arrive at correct estimates of fertilizers required. Micro nutrients, if indicated by the soil report, are also to be supplemented.

Weed Management

Generally weeding is done after 1 ½ to 2 months after sowing.

Farmers have to plan for weed control quite well in advance. A number of herbicides are available for controlling weed problem. As a good practice, it is recommended to rotate herbicides. This will take care of any development resistance to any particular herbicide. The weeds must not be allowed to grow to a threat level. Some herbicides are as follows: (mix all in 250 -300 liters of water/ha)

Fenoxaprop-ethyl @ 89 to 120 gram/ha
Cipdomafpr @ 400 gms a.i./ha
Metribuyzin @ 175 gms a.i./ha
Sulfosulfuran @ 25 gms a.i./ha
Fenoxaprop-ethyl @ 80to 120 gms a.i./ha

Irrigation

1^st irrigation 3-4 weeks after sowing
2^nd irrigation 40-45 days after sowing
3^rd irrigation at 60 to 65 days after sowing
4^th irrigation 80-85 days after sowing
5^th irrigation 100-105
6^th 115 -120 days

Control of Pests and Diseases

Some information on insects, pests and disease of Wheat is discussed below. The control measures depend upon type and intensity of the problems and also whether organic or inorganic pesticides are to be used as decided by the Farmer. For more information on pests and diseases please go through my blog on same.

Downey Mildew: spraying Dithane M-45 at interval is recommended.

Green Jassids: spray of chloropyrofos/ dichlorvos/dimethoate/phorate/imidacloprid

Shoot and Fruit Borer: spray endosulfan/chloropyrofos. Spread phorate.

White Fly: spray malathion. Drench with thimet.

Thrips: spray imidaclorprid/chloropyrofos/dimethoate. Several sprays may be required.

Some supposed Health Benefits of Wheat

This vegetable has a long history in traditional medicine. It has nutrients, vitamins, minerals and other organic compounds which gives wheat a special medicinal value.

The nutritional value of 100g of edible Wheat is said to be equivalent to 12 gm protein, 1.5 gm fat,71 gm carbohydrate, 3.2 gm minerals and 12.2 gm fibers. It contains vitamin B-6,vitamin C, iron and calcium. It’s low in calories and has a high dietary fiber content. There would be minor variations in between varieties.

It is good in lowering of blood sugar levels !

Wheat has been suggested to help manage blood sugar due to presence of sulfur compounds (S-methylcycsteine) and quercetin. These compounds have a beneficial effect in controlling the blood sugar level in the body.

Quercetin in red wheats have significant role in destroying breast and colon cancer cells.

The same compound also prevents release of histamine in body. This helps in allergies.

Some other Benefits are thought to be in help in asthma and allergic rhinitis by using wheat extracts. The use of wheat is also good for eyes, oral healthcare and hair healthcare.

Risks of eating WHEAT

Like with everything which has good properties, Wheat may also have some side effects. It is true that only a few studies Wheat have linked to negative side effects.

Over consumption of wheat for diabetic patients can be harmful.

It goes without saying that Wheat can contain bacteria, pesticides, and other dangerous substances if it is not thoroughly washed before flour is made.

Harvesting and Storage

The rain-fed crop reaches the harvest stage much earlier than the irrigated crop. The crop is harvested when the grains become hard and the straw becomes dry and brittle.Depending on the scale of planting, farmers would utilize Harvester Machine or harvest manually by laborers. The crop is threshed by treading with power driven thresher by most of the farmers. However, at some places farmers of small land holdings or deprived of machines still use cattle on the threshing-flour.

Storage

The grains should be thoroughly dried before storage. The storage life of the grain is closely related to its moisture content. Grains with less than 10 percent moisture store well. The storage pits, bins or godowns should be moisture-proof and should be fumigated. Rat proofing is a must. Zinc phosphide is very effective against rats.

note: The author himself is a small farmer and involved with such farming. Certain data are taken from usually reliable sources on the net.

Posted in Cereals Tagged with: wheat, wheat classification, wheat nutrition values